GIFT  OF 

o  1  e  V   Pu  b  1  i  c    l.i  br '-  ^n^ 


XV.    me  cAaiupico  »»«»  ow  »,«*»-••—• ■» 

on  the  part  of  tho  pupil. 

11  A  principle  once  taught  is  not  allowed  to  bo  forgotten. 
In  one  form  w  other  it  is  mad«  tho  eubject  of  constant  re- 
view. 


<>v''^ 


HISTORICAL 


MISCELLANEOUS  aUESTIONS. 


RIOHMAL  MANGNALL, 


FROM  THE   EIGHTY-FOURTH  LONDON   EDITION. 
•WITH  LARGE  ADDITIONS,  EMBRACING  THE 

ELEMENTS  OF  MYTHOLOGY,  ASTRONOMY,  ARCHITECTURE; 
HERALDRY,  ETC.  ETtt 


ADAPTED  FOR  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY 

MRS.  JULIA  LAWRENCE. 

EMBELLISHED  WITH  NUMEROUS   ENGRAVINGS   ON  WOOD. 

FIFTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  CORRECTED, 
WITH    A    CHAPTER    ON    THE     AMERICAN    CONSTITUTIOK, 

NEW  YORK: 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY,  443  &  445  BROADWAY. 

CINCINNATI : 

RICKEY,  MALLORY  &  COMPANY. 

1860. 


NI5 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  m  the  year  1848 

Bf  1).  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

IB  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Soot»ie» 
District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE 


Having  for  many  years  made  use  of  "  Mangnall's  Questions" 
in  the  education  of  my  own  children,  I  was  tempted  to  intro- 
duce them  into  my  school ;  although  they  were  not  in  general 
use,  it  being  an  expensive  book,  and  at  that  time  (seven  years 
since)  difficult  to  be  obtained.  I  then  discovered  many  defi- 
ciencies, which  I  had  not  before  thought  of,  particularly  in 
having  no  portion  allotted  to  the  history  of  the  United  States, 
so  necessary  in  the  education  of  all  Americans ;  and  too  much 
space  appropriated  to  the  English  Constitution,  together  with 
many  sentences,  the  appHcation  of  which  are  entirely  local. 
These  considerations  have  tempted  me,  feeling  the  value  of  the 
work  in  its  original  form,  and  being  convinced  that  no  book  of 
the  kind  has  ever  been  compiled  so  well  calculated — to  use  the 
words  of  the  author's  preface — "  to  awaken  a  spirit  of  laudable 
curiosity  in  young  minds,"  and  satisfy  that  curiosity  when  awa- 
kened in  a  manner  the  most  concise  and  clear ;  to  r6an"ange 
the  work,  adapting  it  more  particularly  for  the  use  of  schools 
in  this  country,  by  adding  what  has  been  entirely  omitted,  and 
curtailing  those  portions  which,  from  their  diflfuseness  on  mat- 
ters not  particularly  interesting  to  young  Americans,  are  un- 
necessary. I  claim  no  merit  for  this  effort,  even  should  it  prove 
successful,  as  the  portions  of  American  history  I  have  added 
have  been  compiled  from  standard  works — those  of  Prescott, 
Bancroft,  and  Wooster — simplified  as  much  as  possible,  and 
arranged  according  to  the  plan  pursued  in  the  English  work. 


/Ti  r\  r\    A  >^  ^^ 


VI  PREFACE. 

The  chronological  table  lias  been  arranged  on  Mrs.  Willard's 
plan,  in  her  excellent  "  History."  The  "  Common  Subjects'* 
have  been  enlarged,  and  many  errors  corrected.  As  a  knowl- 
edge of  Mythology  is  necessary  to  the  imderstanding  and  en- 
joyment of  the  Classics,  and  as  I  know  of  none,  in  English, 
adapted  to  ladies*  schools,  I  have  added  to  this  book  a  transla- 
tion of  Noel  and  Chapsal's  well-known  work,  with  some  slight 
alterations  and  additions.  In  the  English  book  there  is  only 
an  alphabetical  list  of  the  deities,  etc.  A  taste  for  Architecture 
is  so  rapidly  increasing  in  this  country,  that  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  every  young  person  to  understand  the  different  orders, 
and  terms  made  use  of,  to  discriminate  between  the  pure  and 
mixed  styles,  and  give  to  different  portions  of  sacred  edifices 
particularly,  their  proper  names ;  I  have  therefore  devoted  a 
few  pages  to  this  subject,  taken  from  a  little  Enghsh  book 
called  the  "  Hand-book  of  Architecture,"  which  I  hope  will  be 
found  useful. 

I  have  endeavored,  in  the  few  pages  on  the  subject  of  Her- 
aldry, to  give  as  concise  an  account  of  it  as  possible  to  convey 
a  clear  idea  of  the  terms  made  use  of,  the  orders  of  knighthood, 
titles,  etc.,  which  are  constantly  met  with  in  reading  history,  and 
which  it  is  difficult  to  explain  to  the  pupil  totally  unacquainted 
with  the  subject.  I  have  confined  myself  to  that  portion  rela- 
ting to  England,  as  our  ideas  on  the  subject  are  entirely  taken 
from  that  mother  country/.  The  plates  will  give  a  correct  idea 
of  the  appearance  of  the  escutcheons,  etc.  I  trust  this  short 
explanation  will  not  be  thought  out  of  place  in  our  repubhcan 
country. 

Trusting  that  it  may  meet  the  approval  of  teachers  in  general, 
I  commend  to  them  and  to  the  pubHc  the  American  edition  of 
••Mangnall's  Questions." 

Julia  Lawrenck. 

ITkw  York,  July  10,  1848. 


CONTENTS, 


Wcs 
A  Short  View  of  Scripture  History,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Re- 
turn of  the  Jews 9 

(Questions  from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  Time  of  Julius  Caesar. ...     40 

Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Grecian  History 47 

Miscellaneous  Questions  in  General  History,  chiefly  ancient. ...     60 
Questions  containing  a  Sketch  of  the  most  remarkable  Events 
from  the  Christian  Era  to  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury      72 

Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Roman  History 80 

Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Invasion  of  Caesar  to  the 

Reformation 94 

Continuation  of  Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Reforma- 
tion to  the  Present  Time 109 

Abstract  of  Early  British  History 123 

Abstract  of  English  Reigns  from  the  Conquest 130 

Abstract  of  the  Scottish  Reigns 140 

Abstract  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Pharamond  to  Philip  1 146 

Continuation  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Louis  VI.  to  Louis 

Philippe  ... 151 

Questions  Relating  to  the  History  of  America  from  its  Discovery 

to  the  Present  Time , 161 

Abstract  of  Roman  Kings  and  most  distinguished  Heroes 219 

Abstract  of  the  most  celebrated  Grecians 222 

Of  Heathen  Mythology  in  general 225 

Abstract  of  the  Heathen  Mythology 316 

The  Elements  of  Astronomy 322 

Explanation  of  a  few  Astronomical  Terms 325 


8  CONTENTS. 

Paqb 

list  of  Constellations 328 

Questions  on  Common  Subjects 330 

Questions  on  Architecture 346 

Questions  on  Heraldry 364 

Explanation  of  such  Latin  Words  and  Phrases  as  are  seldom 

Englished ^ 386 

Questions  on  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages 388 


HISTOEICAL 


MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 


A    SHORT   VIEW   OF   SCRIPTURE   HISTORY, 

FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  RETURN  OF  THE  JEWS. 
{Abridged  from  Watts^  Scripture  History.) 

When  darkness  ruled  with  universal  sway, 
He  spoke,  and  kindled  up  the  blaze  of  day  ; 
First,  fairest  offspring  of  th'  omnific  word ! 
Which,  like  a  garment,  clothed  its  sovereign*Lord. 
On  liquid  air  he  bade  the  columns  rise 
That  prop  the  starry  concave  of  the  skies : 
Diffused  the  blue  expanse  from  pole  to  pole, 
And  spread  circumfluent  ether  round  the  whole. 

Blacklock. 

How  came  this  world  into  being  ?  In  the  beginning  the 
great  God  made  heaven  and  earth,  and  all  things  that  are  in 
them.  How  did  God  make  all  things  ?  By  his  powerful  word, 
for  he  commanded,  and  it  was  done.  What  time  did  God  spend 
in  making  the  world  ?  God,  who  could  have  made  all  things 
at  once  by  his  perfect  wisdom  and  almighty  power,  chose  rather 
to  do  it  by  degrees,  and  spend  six  days  in  making  the  world, 
with  the  creatures  that  are  in  it.  Who  were  the  first  man  and 
woman  that  God  made  ?  Adam  and  Eve.  In  what  manner 
did  God  make  Adam  ?  He  framed  his  body  out  of  the  dust 
of  the  ground,  and  then  put  a  living  soul  within  him.  How 
did  God  make  Eve  ?  He  cast  Adam  into  a  deep  sleep,  and 
formed  Eve  out  of  one  of  his  ribs,  and  then  brought  her  to  him 
to  be  his  wife.  In  what  state  did  God  create  them  ?  God 
created  them  both  in  his  own  likeness,  in  a  holy  and  happy 
state,  which  is  called  the  state  of  innocence.  Where  did  God 
put  Adam  and  Eve,  when  he  made  them  ?  Into  the  garden  of 
Eden,  to  keep  it,  and  take  care  of  it,  that  even  in  the  state  of 
innocency  and  happiness  they  might  have  some  work  to  be 


10  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTUi   ::  HISTORY. 

employed  iii.  What  was  their  food  m  that  garden  ?  God  gave 
them  leave  to  eat  of  any  of  the  herbs,  plants,  or  fruits,  that 
grew  there,  except  the  fruit  of  one  tree,  which  he  forbade  them 
to  taste,  on  pain  of  death.  What  was  the  name  of  that  tree  ? 
It  was  called  tlie  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  because  as 
soon  as  man  ate  of  it,  he  would  know  evil  to  his  sorrow,  as 
well  as  he  knew  good  before  to  his  comfort.  As  there  was 
one  tree  so  dangerous  that  it  exposed  him  to  death  if  he  ate  of 
it,  was  there  not  also  a  tree  that  would  secure  him  from  death  ? 
Yes,  there  was  a  tree  called  the  tree  of  life,  placed  in  the  midst 
of  the  garden,  whose  fruit  was  able  to  have  preserved  him  in 
life,  if  he  had  continued  to  obey  God ;  and  it  is  reasonably 
supposed  to  have  been  designed  as  a  pledge  or  seal  of  eternal  life 
to  him,  if  he  had  continued  in  his  innocency.  What  was  the  reli- 
gion of  Adam  in  the  state  of  innocency  ?  The  practice  of  all 
the  duties  towards  God,  and  towards  his  creatiires,  whicli  the 
light  of  nature  or  reason  could  teach  him,  together  with  his 
observance  of  this  one  positive  precept,  of  abstaining  from  the 
fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  ;  and  this  was  given  him  as  a  spe- 
cial test  or  trial  of  his  obedience  to  his  Maker.  This  is  called 
the  dispensation  of  innocence.  How  did  Adam  behave  himself 
in  this  time  of  his  trial  ?  He  ate  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  know- 
ledge, which  God  had  forbidden  him  on  pain  of  death.  How 
came  Adam  to  disobey  God,  and  eat  of  this  forbidden  tree  ? 
Eve  first  was  persuaded  to  eat  of  that  deadly  fruit,  and  then 
she  persuaded  Adam  to  eat  of  it  too.  Who  tempted  Eve  to 
eat  of  it  ?  The  evil  spirit,  that  is,  the  devil,  which  lay  hid  in 
the  serpent ;  and  for  this  reason  he  is  called  the  old  serpent  in 
the  Revelation.  What  mischief  followed  from  hence  ?  As  Adam 
sinned  against  God,  so  he  brought  in  sin  and  death  among  all 
mankind,  who  were  his  children,  and  they  have  spread  through 
all  generations.  Did  God  put  Adam  and  Eve  to  death  as  soon 
as  they  had  sinned  ?  No ;  but  they  were  condemned  to  die, 
and  became  liable  to  sickness  and  death :  they  were  driven  out 
of  the  garden  of  paradise,  that  they  might  not  taste  of  the  tree 
of  life,  and  thej  were  appointed  to  labor  hard  for  their  food  all 
their  days.  Did  Cr-d  who  spared  their  life  show  them  any  fur- 
ther pity  ?  Yes  ;  he  gave  them  a  kind  promise,  and  clothed 
them  with  the  skins  of  beasts,  because  they  were  naked.  What 
was  the  kind  promise  that  he  gave  them  ?  That  "  the  seed  of 
the  woman  should  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent"  who  tempted 
them  to  sin.  Who  is  this  seed  of  the  woman?  The  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  t4ie  Son  of  God,  who  "  in  due  time  was  born  of  a  wo- 
man."    What  is  meant  by  **  bruising  the   serpent's   head  ?*' 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTUIIE  HISTORY.  11 

That  Christ  should  destroy  the  wicked  works  and  designs  of  the 
devil,  and  thereby  save  mankind  from  the  sin  and  death  which 
were  brought  in  among  them  by  his  temptation.  What  was 
the  religion  of  man  after  the  fall  or  sin  of  Adam  ?  All  the 
duties  of  the  light  of  nature  which  were  required  before :  and 
besides  these,  he  was  now  called  to  repentance  for  sin,  faith  or 
trust  in  the  mercy  of  God,  expectation  of  the  promised  Saviour, 
and  oflfering  of  sacrifices.  This  is  called  the  Adamical  Dispen- 
sation of  the  covenant  of  grace,  and  it  reached  to  Noah's  flood.  - 
Who  were  Adam's  first  children  ?  Cain  and  Abel.  What  was 
Cain?  Adam's  eldest  son,  and  he  was  "  a  tiller  of  the  ground." 
But  what  mischief  did  Cain  do  ?  He  killed  his  brother  Abel,  • 
who  was  "  a  keeper  of  sheep."  Why  did  Cain  kill  him  ?  Be- 
cause his  own  works  were  evil,  and  God  did  not  accept  his 
sacrifices ;  but  his  brother's  works  were  righteous,  and  God 
gave  some  token  that  he  accepted  him.  Whither  went  Cain 
when  God  reproved  him  for  his  murder  ?  He  went  out,  and 
departed  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  his  father's 
family,  where  God  was  worshipped.  What  were  the  posterity 
of  Cain  ?  Some  of  them  are  famous  for  inventions  of  music, 
and  handicraft-trades,  but  they  are  supposed  to  have  neglected 
religion.  What  other  son  had  Adam  ?  Seth,  who  was  born 
soon  after  the  death  of  Abel,  and  several  others  born  after  him. 
Did  the  children  of  Seth  neglect  religion  too  ?  Religion  was 
publicly  maintained  for  some  generations  in  Seth's  family,  for 
they  distinguished  themselves  from  the  wicked  sons  of  men  ; 
they  prayed  to  God,  and  were  called  tlie  sons  of  God.  Did 
they  grow  degenerate  afterwards  ?  All  mankind  grew  so 
wicked  except  a  few,  that  God  saw  it  proper  to  manifest  his 
righteous  judgment,  and  his  anger  against  sin,  by  destroying 
them.  Who  were  some  of  the  chief  persons  of  Seth's  posterity 
mentioned  in  scripture  in  those  early  times  ?  Enoch  and  Me- 
thuselah, Lamech  and  JSToah,  were  the  most  remarkable.  Who 
was  Enoch  ?  The  man  who  walked  with  God,  and  pleased  him 
in  the  midst  of  a  wicked  world,  and  foretold  the  judgment  of 
God  on  sinners.  What  became  of  Enoch  ?  God  took  him  to 
heaven  without  dying,  as  a  peculiar  favor  and  honor  done  to 
him.  Who  was  Methuselah  ?  The  son  of  Enoch,  and  the  oldest 
man  that  we  ever  read  of.  How  long  did  he  live  ?  Nine  hun- 
dred and  sixty -nine  years.  Who  was  Lamech  ?  Noah's  father, 
"who  prophesied  of  the  blessing  the  earth,  which  had  been  laid 
undsr  a  curse  for  the  sin  of  Adam,  should  find  in  his  son. 

Who  was  Noah  ?     The  righteous  man  who  was  saved  when 
the  world  was  drowned  by  a  flood.  ■•  How  did  God  drown  the 


12  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

world  ?  When  mankind  had  provoked  him  by  their  sins,  which 
were  exceeding  great,  he  broke  up  the  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  under  ground,  and  caused  it  to  rain  forty  days  and  forty 
nights.  How  was  Noah  saved  ?  In  an  ark,  or  great  ship  or 
vessel,  which  God  taught  him  to  build.  Who  was  saved  with 
him  ?  All  his  family,  and  some  living  creatures  of  every  kind, 
namely,  two  of  every  unclean  beast  and  bird,  which  were  neither 
fit  for  food  nor  sacrifice ;  and  seven  of  every  clean  creature, 
whicn  were  fit  for  one  or  both  uses.  How  long  did  Noah  tarry 
in  the  ark  ?  At  nine  months*  end  he  sent  forth  a  dove,  which 
brought  in  an  olive-branch,  to  show  him  that  the  waters  were 
abated  ;  and  at  the  end  of  twelve  months  and  ten  days  he  came 
forth,  and  the  creatures  which  were  with  him.  What  commands 
did  God  give  Noah  ?  The  offering  of  sacrifices  was  continued  ; 
flesh  was  given  to  man  for  food,  as  herbs  were  before ;  blood 
was  forbidden  to  be  eaten ;  the  blood  of  man  was  expressly 
forbidden  to  be  shed,  and  murder  was  to  be  punished  with  death. 
What  promise  did  God  make  to  Noah  ?  That  the  world  should 
never  be  drowned  again ;  and  it  pleased  God  to  appoint  the 
rainbow  to  be  a  token  of  it.  Was  there  no  rainbow  before  the 
flood  ?  It  is  probable  that  there  was  no  rain  before  the  flood, 
for  the  earth  was  watered  daily  by  a  thick  mist,  and  then  there 
could  be  naturally  no  rainbow,  for  this  is  made  by  the  sunbeams 
shining  upon  falling  rain.  Who  were  Noah's  three  sons  ?  Shem, 
Ham,  and  Japheth  ;  and  they  were  the  fathers  of  all  mankind 
after  the  flood.  Who  were  the  ofi'spring  or  posterity  of  Shem  ? 
The  Persians,  who  came  from  Elam  their  father ;  the  Syrians 
from  Aram  ;  the  Hebrews  from  Eber,  as  is  supposed ;  and  par- 
ticularly the  Jews,  with  other  inhabitants  of  Asia.  Who  were 
the  posterity  of  Ham  ?  The  Canaanites,  the  Philistines,  and 
others  in  Asia,  and  the  Egyptians,  with  other  inhabitants  of 
Africa.  Who  were  the  posterity  of  Japheth?  Gomer,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  father  of  the  Germans,  Javan  of  the  Greeks, 
Meshech  of  the  Muscovites,  and  other  famihes  that  dwelt  in 
Europe.  Did  mankind  freely  divide  themselves  after  the  flood 
into  several  nations  ?  No  ;  but,  being  all  of  one  language,  they 
agreed  rather  to  build  a  chief  city  with  a  tower,  that  all  men 
might  be  joined  in  one  nation  or  kingdom.  How  did  God 
scatter  them  abroad  into  different  nations  ?  By  making  them 
speak  diff'ercnt  languages,  and  then  they  ceased  to  build  the 
tower ;  which  was  called  Babely  or  Confusion.  Did  God  pre- 
serve the  true  religion  in  any  of  their  families  ?  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  chiefly  preserved  in  the  family  of  Shem,  for  God 
is  called  "  the  Lord  God  of  Shem." 


A.  SriORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  13 

Who  was  the  most  famous  man  of  Shem's  posterity  in  these 
early  ages  ?  Abraham,  the  son  of  Terah,  of  the  posterity  of 
Eber.  What  is  the  first  remarkable  thing  recorded  of  Abra- 
ham ?  He  left  his  own  native  country  to  go  whithersoever  God 
called  him.  Whence  did  Abraham  come,  and  whither  did  he 
go  ?  He  came  first  from  Chaldea,  then  from  Haran  ;  and  he 
went  to  dwell  among  strangers  in  the  land  of  Canaan.  Who 
came  with  Abraham  into  Canaan  ?  Lot,  his  brother's  son ;  and 
they  brought  with  them  all  their  substance  and  their  household. 
Did  they  continue  to  dwell  together  ?  Their  cattle  and  servants 
grew  so  numerous  that  they  parted  for  fear  of  quarrelling,  and 
Abraham  gave  Lot  his  choice  to  go  to  the  east  or  the  west. 
Where  did  Lot  sojourn  ?  He  chose  the  east,  and  pitched  his 
tent  towards  Sodom,  because  it  was  a  well-watered  and  fruitful 
country.  What  calamity  befell  Lot  here  ?  He  was  carried 
away  captive  together  with  other  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  when 
the  king  of  Sodom  was  routed  in  battle  by  his  enemies.  What 
did  Abraham  do  on  this  occasion  ?  He  armed  his  own  servants, 
three  hundred  and  eighteen  men,  who  pursued  the  conquerors 
and  routed  them,  and  brought  back  Lot  and  the  other  captives 
with  their  goods.  When  Abraham  returned  from  the  slaughter 
of  the  kings,  what  honor  was  done  him?  Melchisedek,  the 
king  of  Salem,  and  the  priest  of  the  most  high  God,  met  him, 
and  pronounced  a  blessing  upon  him.  What  civility  did  the 
king  of  Sodom  show  Abraham  ?  He  offered  him  all  the  goods 
that  Abraham  had  recovered  from  the  former  conquerors,  but 
Abraham  refused  to  accept  them.  What  became  of  Sodom 
afterwards  ?  It  was  burnt  by  fire  and  brimstone  from  heaven, 
together  with  Gomorrah,  and  other  cities,  because  of  the  wicked- 
ness of  its  inhabitants.  Abraham  pleaded  with  God  to  spare 
Sodom,  and  God  would  have  done  it,  had  there  been  but  ten 
righteous  men  in  all  the  city.  How  did  Lot  escape  ?  The  two 
angels  which  were  sent  to  destroy  Sodom  persuaded  him  to  flee 
away  with  his  family  first.  How  many  of  his  family  escaped 
this  judgment  ?  Only  himself  and  his  two  daughters,  for  his 
two  sons-in-law  refused  to  remove.  What  became  of  Lot's 
wife  ?  She  went  with  him  part  of  the  way,  but  when  she  looked 
back,  hankering  after  Sodom,  she  was  struck  dead  immediately, 
perhaps  with  a  blast  of  that  lightning  which  burnt  Sodom,  and 
Bhe  stood  like  a  pillar  of  salt. 

In  what  part  of  the  country  did  Abraham  dwell  ?  When  he 
removed  from  Lot  he  went  towards  the  west,  and  travelling  on 
towards  the  southwest,  he  sojourned  in  the  land  of  Abimelecb, 
king  of  Gerar,  in  the  country  of  the  PhiUstines.    What  sons  had 


14  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

Abraham  ?  The  two  chief  were  Ishmael  and  Isaac.  Who  was 
Ishmael  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Abraham,  by  Hagar  his  hand- 
maid. What  became  of  Ishmael  ?  Abraham,  by  the  commani 
of  God,  turned  Ishmael  and  his  mother  out  of  his  house  into  the 
wilderness,  because  they  mocked  and  abused  his  younger  son 
Isaac.  Did  Ishmael  perish  in  the  wilderness  ?  The  angel  o/ 
God  appeared  to  Hagar,  and  showed  her  a  spring  of  water  when 
they  were  dying  with  thirst :  and  Ishmael  grew  up  to  be  a 
great  man,  and  the  father  of  a  laro^e  nation.  Who  was  Isaac's 
mother?  Isaac  was  the  son  of  Abraham,  by  Sarah  his  wife^ 
according  to  the  promise  of  God,  Avhen  they  were  both  grown 
old.  Why  is  Abraham  called  the  father  of  the  JFaithful,  i.  e.  of 
the  believers  ?  Because  he  beheved  the  promises  of  God  against 
all  probable  appearance,  and  was  a  pattern  to  other  believers  in 
ill  ages.  What  were  the  three  chief  promises  which  God  gave 
Abraham  ?  1.  That  he  should  have  a  son  when  he  was  a  liun- 
dred  years  old.  2.  That  his  children  should  possess  the  land 
of  Canaan,  when  he  had  not  ground  enough  to  set  his  foot  on 
there.  And  3.  That  all  the  families  of  the  earth  should  be 
blessed  in  him  and  his  offspring,  when  he  was  but  a  private 
person.  What  did  this  last  promise  mean  ?  That  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Saviour  of  men,  should  come  from  his  family.  What  was 
the  relicfion  of  Abraham  ?  The  same  with  the  relio^ion  of  Adam 
after  the  fall,  and  the  religion  of  Noah,  with  the  addition  of  cir- 
cumcision, and  the  expectation  of  Canaan,  to  be  given  to  his 
seed,  as  a  type  of  heaven ;  and  a  trust  in  the  promise  of  a  Saviour 
who  should  spring  from  him,  and  bless  all  nations.  How  did 
Abraham  most  eminently  show  his  obedience  to  God  ?  In  his 
readiness  to  offer  up  his  son  Isaac  in  sacrifice  at  God's  com- 
mand. And  did  he  offer  him  in  sacrifice  ?  _  No  ;  God  withheld 
his  hand,  and  sent  a  ram  to  be  sacrificed  in  his  stead.  What 
further  favors  did  Abraham  receive  from  God  ?  God  visited 
him,  and  conversed  with  him  several  times  in  a  visible  manner, 
and  changed  his  name  from  Abram  to  Abraham.  What  is 
written  concerning  SarMi,  Abraham's  wife  ?  She  believed 
God's  promise,  and  had  a  son  when  she  was  ninety  years 
old,  and  her  name  was  also  changed  from  Sarai  to  Sarah. 
What  is  recorded  concerning  Isaac  their  son?  He  feared 
the  God  of  his  father  Abraham  ;  he  had  frequent  visions  of 
God,  and  went  out  into  the  fields  to  meditate  or  pray,  and 
offered  sacrifices  to  God.  Who  was  Isaac's  wife  ?  His  father 
Abraham  sent  afar,  and  took  a  wife  for  him,  even  Rebecca,  out 
of  his  own  family  in  Mesopotamia,  because  he  was  unwilling  he 
Bhould  marry  among  the  wicked  Canaanites,  whom  God  had 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  IS 

doomed  to  destruction.    What  cLildren  had  Isaac  ?    Two  sons, 
Esau  and  Jacob. 

Who  was  Esau  ?  He  was  Isaac's  eldest  son,  bred  up  to 
hunting  rather  than  husbandry,  who  sold  his  birthright  to  his 
brother  for  a  mess  of  pottage  when  he  was  faint  with  hunting. 
Who  was  Jacob?  The  youngest  son  of  Isaac,  Avho,  by  his 
mother's  contrivance,  obtained  his  father's  blessing,  though  not 
in  a  right  way.  By  what  treachery  did  he  obtain  the  blessing? 
Wlien  his  father  was  old,  and  his  eyes  dim,  by  order  of  his 
mother  he  put  on  Esau's  clothes,  and  told  his  father  he  was 
Esau,  his  eldest  son.  How  did  Esau  take  this  ?  Esau  threat- 
ened to  kill  him,  and  therefore  he  left  his  father's  house. 
Whither  did  Jacob  go?  To  Latiin  the  Syrian,  who  was  his 
mother's  brother.  What  did  he  meet  with  in  going  thither  ? . 
He  lay  down  to  sleep  on  a  stone  at  Beth-el,  and  had  a  holy 
dream  of  God,  and  of  anajels  there  ascendins^  and  descendinnj 
between  heaven  and  earth.  How  long  did  he  live  there  ? 
Twenty  years,  till  he  had  got  a  large  family  of  children  and 
servants,  much  cattle  and  great  riches.  What  did  Jacob  meet 
with  in  his  return  to  Canaan  ?  He  had  a  vision  of  God,  as  of  a 
man  wrestling  with  him.  Why  was  Jacob  called  Israel  ?  Be- 
cause he  prayed  and  prevailed  with  God  for  a  blessing,  while 
he  wrestled  with  him  in  the  form  of  a  man.  How  did  his 
brother  Esau  meet  him  ?  God  turned  Esau's  heart,  so  that  he 
met  him  with  great  civility,  though  he  came  out  with  four  hun- 
dred men  (as  Jacob  feared)  to  destroy  him.  What  posterity 
had  Esau?  A  large  posterity,  who  chiefly  inhabited  Mount 
Seir,  and  were  called  Edomites  from  their  father's  other  name, 
Edom.  How  many  sons  had  Jacob  ?  Twelve,  and  they  were 
called  the  twelve  Patriarchs,  because  they  were  the  fathers  of 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  What  are  their  names  ?  Reuben, 
Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun,  the  sons  of  his 
wife  Leah  ;  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  the  sons  of  his  wdfe  Rachel ; 
Dan  and  IN'aphtali,  the  sons  of  Bilhah  his  concubine  ;  and  Gad 
and  Asher,  the  sons  of  Zilpah  his  concubine.  Who  were  the 
most  famous  of  all  these  in  sacred  history  ?  Levi,  Judah,  and 
Joseph.  What  is  there  remarkable  concerning  Levi  ?  The 
priesthood,  and  other  things  relating  to  the  worship  of  God, 
were  committed  to  Levi's  family  in  following  times.  What  is 
there  remarkable  relating  to  Judah  ?  He  dealt  very  basely 
with  his  daughter-in-law  Tamar,  and  committed  shameful  wick- 
edness. Did  God  forgive  this  sin  ?  Yes,  God  forgave  it  so  far 
as  not  to  punish  his  posterity  for  it :  for  the  kingdom  and 
government  in  future  ages  was  promised  chiefly  to  his  family 


16  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

What  is  there  remarkable  said  of  Joseph  ?  His  brethren  sold 
him  for  a  slave  into  Egypt,  where  he  became  ruler  of  the  land. 
Why  did  they  sell  him  ?  For  envy,  because  his  father  loved 
him,  and  made  him  a  coat  of  many  colors,  and  because  he 
dreamed  that  thev  should  bow  down  to  him.  What  was  his 
first  station  in  the  land  of  Egypt  ?  He  was  servant  in  the 
house  of  Potiphar.  a  captain  of  the  guard,  and  by  a  false  accu- 
sation of  his  master*s  wife  he  was  cast  into  prison,  though  he 
was  entirely  innocent.  What  was  the  occasion  of  his  advance- 
ment ?  He  interpreted  the  dreams  of  some  of  his  fellow- 
prisoners,  and  when  the  interpretation  proved  true,  he  was  sent 
for  to  court  to  interpret  the  king's  dream.  And  did  this  raise 
Joseph  to  be  the  ruler  of  Egypt  ?  Yes ;  he  was  thus  advanced, 
because  he  foretold  the  .^even  years  of  plenty  and  seven  years 
of  famine,  which  Pbaraoh  the  king  dreamed  of* under  two 
different  emblems,  of  good  and  bad  ears  of  corn,  and  of  seven 
fat  kine  and  seven  lean  ones.  How  did  Joseph  carry  himself 
towards  his  brethren  in  his  advancement  ?  In  the  famine  they 
came  to  buy  corn  in  Egypt,  and  bowed  down  to  him,  according 
to  his  dreams  ;  but  he  treated  them  roughly  at  fii-st,  as  a  great 
lord  and  a  stranger,  till  their  consciences  smote  them  for  their 
former  cruelty  to  him.  Did  he  revenge  himself  upon  them  ? 
No,  but  he  made  himself  known  to  them  with  much  affection 
and  tenderness.  How  did  he  manifest  his  forgiveness  of  them  ? 
He  sent  for  his  father,  and  bade  his  brethren  bring  all  their 
faraihes  into  Egypt,  and  he  maintained  them  all  during  the 
famine.  Did  Jacob  die  in  Egypt  ?  Yes  ;  but  according  to  his 
desire  his  body  was  carried  up  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  was 
buried  there  in  faith  of  the  promise,  that  his  seed  should  possess 
the  land.  What  became  of  the  families  of  Israel  after  Joseph's 
death  ?  They  were  made  slaves  in  Egypt,  and  a  i^ew  king, 
who  knew  not  Joseph,  sorely  oppressed  them,  and  endeavored 
to  destroy  them.  Did  Joseph,  as  well  as  his  father,  profess 
any  hope  of  his  family  and  kindred  returning  from  Egypt  in 
following  times  ?  Yes,  he  died  in  faith  of  the  promise  made  to 
his  fathers,  that  they  should  go  and  possess  the  land  of  Canaan ; 
and  therefore  he  required  them,  when  they  went,  to  carry  up 
his  bones,  and  bury  them  in  the  promised  land. 

Who  delivered  the  Israelites  from  the  slavery  of  Egypt? 
God  heard  their  cry,  and  dehvered  them  by  the  hand  of  Moses 
and  Aaron.  Who  was  Moses  ?  He  was  one  of  the  family  of 
Levi  among  the  people  of  Israel,  who  was  wonderfully  saved 
from  drowning  when  he  was  an  infant.  How  was  lie  in  danger 
of  drowning  ?     Pharaoh,  the  king  of  Egypt  had  commanded 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  17 

every  male  child  to  be  slain ;  and  when  Moses'  parents  could 
hide  him  no  longer,  they  laid  him  by  the  bank  of  the  river,  in 
an  ark  or  box  of  bulrushes.  How  was  he  saved  ?  The  king  of 
Egypt's  daughter  found  him  by  the  river,  pitied  the  child,  and 
brought  him  up  for  her  own  son.  Did  he  continue  a  courtier 
in  Egypt?  No,  for  when  he  was  grown  a  man  he  showed 
pity  to  his  kindred  in  thei .  slavery,  and  slew  an  Egyptian ; 
which  being  known,  he  fled  from  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  Whither 
did  he  fly  ?  To  the  land  of  Midian,  where  he  kept  the  sheep 
of  Jethro,  a  priest  or  prince  of  the  country,  and  married  his 
daughter.  How  did  God  appoint  him  to  deliver  Israel  ?  God 
appeared  to  him  in  a  burning  bush,  as  he  was  keeping  Jethro's 
sheep,  and  sent  him  to  Pharaoh  to  require  the  release  of  Israel, 
his  people.  What  was  his  ofiice  afterwards  ?  God  made  him 
the  leader  and  lawgiver  of  the  people  of  Israel.  Who  was 
Aaron  ?  He  was  brother  to  Moses,  and  sent  by  God  to  meet 
him,  as  he  was  returning  to  Egypt,  and  appointed  to  assist  him 
in  his  dealing  with  Pharaoh.  What  was  Aaron's  office  after- 
wards? He  was  made  the  first  high-priest  of  Israel.  How 
did  Moses  and  Aaron  prove  to  Pharaoh,  and  to  the  people,  that 
God  had  sent  them  upon  this  errand?  They  had  power 
given  them  from  God  himself  to  work  several  miracles,  or  signs 
and  wonders,  to  convince  the  people  of  Israel,  as  well  as  Pha- 
raoh, that  they  had  a  commission  from  God.  What  was  the 
first  miracle  ?  Aaron  cast  down  his  rod,  and  it  became  a  ser- 
pent ;  and  when  Pharaoh's  conjurors  did  so  too,  Aaron's  rod 
swallowed  theirs  all  up.  What  did  Moses  and  Aaron  do  further 
to  dehver  that  people?  Upon  Pharaoh's  refusal  to  let  the 
people  of  Israel  go,  they  brought  ten  miraculous  plagues  upon 
the  king,  and  upon  all  the  land,  by  the  authority  and  power  of 
God.  What  were  these  ten  plagues?  1.  Water  turned  into 
blood.  2.  Frogs.  3.  Lice.  4.  Fhes.  5.  Murrain  among  cattle. 
6.  Boils  and  blisters  on  man  and  beast.  V.  Thunder,  lightning, 
and  hail.  8.  Locusts.  9.  Thick  darkness.  10.  The  first-born 
siain.  Were  Pharaoh  and  his  people  willing  to  release  the 
Israehtes  at  last  ?  Yes,  when  they  saw  they  were  all  like  to 
be  destroyed,  for  there  was  not  a  house  wherein  there  was  not 
one  dead,  then  they  hastened  them  out,  and  lent  them  jewels 
and  gold  to  adorn  their  sacrifices  and  worship.  How  great 
was  the  number  of  the  Israelites  that  went  out  of  Egypt  ?  Si-^ 
hundred  thousand  men,  besides  children ;  and  all  went  on  foot. 
Which  way  did  the  Israelites  bend  their  journey  ?  Towards 
the  wilderness  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  they  were  guided  by  God 
himself,  marching  before  them  in  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day,  and 

2* 


(8  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

a  pi  lar  of  fire  hj  night.  But  did  not  Pharaoh  and  his  armj 
pursue  them  after  they  were  gone  ?  Yes,  they  repented  that 
they  had  let  them  go,  and  pursued  them  to  the  Red  Sea,  re- 
sohing  to  destroy  them.  How  did  the  people  of  Israel,  who 
came  out  of  Egypt,  get  over  the  Red  Sea  ?  When  they  were 
in  distress,  with  the  Red  Sea  before  them,  and  Pharaoh's  army 
behind  them,  they  cried  unto  God,  whereon  Moses  bade  them 
stand  still,  and  see  the  salvation  of  the  Lord.  Then,  at  the 
command  of  God,  Moses  struck  the  sea  with  his  rod,  and  divided 
the  waters  asunder,  and  the  children  of  Israel  went  through 
upon  dry  land.  What  became  of  the  Egyptians  that  followed 
them  ?  God  troubled  their  army,  retarded  their  march,  and 
when  Moses  stretched  out  his  hand  over  the  sea  again,  the 
waters  returned  upon  them,  and  they  were  drowned.  Whither 
did  the  children  of  Israel  go  then  ?  They  went  whithersoever 
God  guided  them  by  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  the  pillar  of  fire ; 
and  they  moved  and  they  rested  according  to  the  rest  or  the 
motion  of  this  cloud.  How  did  the  people  of  Israel,  who  had 
seen  all  these  wonders,  behave  themselves  in  their  travels? 
At  every  new  difiiculty,  when  they  wanted  meat  or  water,  or 
met  with  enemies,  they  murmured  against  God  and  Moses. 
How  long  was  it  before  they  came  to  the  place  that  God  had 
promised  them  ?  They  wandered  forty  years  in  the  wilderness, 
for  their  sins.  What  did  they  eat  all  the  time  ?  God  fed  them 
with  manna,  or  bread  that  came  down  every  night  from  heaven, 
and  lay  all  round  the  camp.  What  did  they  drink  in  the  wilder- 
ness ?  Moses  smote  the  rock  with  his  rod,  and  water  gushed 
out  in  a  river,  which  att^snded  them  in  their  journey.  What  did 
they  do  for  clothes  during  these  forty  years  ?  Their  raiment 
waxed  not  old,  nor  did  their  shoes  wear  out.  Did  Moses  govern 
ail  these  people  himself  ?  By  his  father-in-law  Jethro's  advice, 
and  by  God's  approbation,  he  appointed  officers  and  judges  over 
the  people  for  common  cases,  but  every  harder  cause  was 
brought  to  Moses.  You  told  me  that  Moses  was  a  lawgiver  to 
the  Jews,  or  people  of  Israel ;  pray  how  came  he  by  those  wise 
and  holy  laws  which  he  gave  them  ?  He  conversed  with  God 
fourscore  days  and  nights  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  there  he  learned 
them.  What  token  was  there  that  Moses  had  been  with  God  ? 
The  face  of  Moses  shone  so  that  the  people  could  not  converse 
with  him  till  he  put  a  veil  on  his  face.  What  sort  of  laws  were 
those  which  Moses  gave  the  Jews  ?  Moral  laws,  ceremonial 
laws,  and  judicial  laws,  and  all  by  God's  appointment.  What 
was  the  religion  of  the  Jews  or  Israelites  ?  The  same  with  the 
religion  of  Adam  after  his  fall,  of  Noah,  and  Abraham,  with 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCraPTUltE  HISTORY.  19 

those  additions  given  by  Moses.  That  is  called  the  Jewish,  oi 
Mosaical,  or  Levitical  Dispensation. 

Which  was  the  moral  law  given  to  the  Jews  ?  All  those 
commands  which  relate  to  their  behavior,  considered  as  men, 
and  which  lie  scattered  up  and  down  in  the  books  of  Moses : 
but  they  are  as  it  were  reduced  into  a  small  compass  in  the  ten 
commandments.  How  were  these  ten  commandments  first 
given  them  ?  By  the  voice  of  God  on  Mount  Sinai,  three  months 
after  their  coming  out  of  Egypt ;  and  it  was  attended  with 
thunder,  and  fire,  and  smoke,  and  the  sound  of  a  trumpet. 
Where  was  this  moral  law  more  especially  written  ?  In  the 
two  tables  of  stone  which  God  wrote  with  his  own  hand,  and 
gave  to  Moses.  What  did  the  first  table  contain  ?  Their  duty 
towards  God  in  the  first  four  commandments.  What  did  the 
second  table  contain  ?  Their  duty  towards  man  in  the  last  six 
commandments. 

What  was  the  ceremonial  law  ?  All  those  commandments 
which  seem  to  have  some  religious  design  in  them,  especially 
such  as  related  to  their  cleansing  from  any  defilement,  and  their 
peculiar  forms  of  worship. 

What  were  the  chief  rites  or  ceremonies  appointed  for  puri- 
fication or  cleansing  among  the  Jews  ?  Washing  with  water, 
sprinkhng  with  water  or  blood,  anointing  with  holy  oil,  shaving 
the  head  of  man  or  woman,  together  with  various  sorts  of  sac- 
rifices, and  some  other  appointments.  What  were  those  things 
or  persons  among  the  Jews  which  here  required  to  be  purified  ? 
All  persons,  houses,  buildings,  garments,  or  other  things  which 
were  set  apart  for  the  service  of  God ;  and  all  such  as  had  been 
defiled  by  leprosy,  by  touching  human  dead  bodies,  or  the  car- 
cass of  any  unclean  animals,  or  by  other  ceremonial  pollutions. 
Were  there  any  crimes  of  real  impiety  which  could  be  taken 
away  by  these  outward  ceremonies  ?  The  blood  of  bulls  and 
of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer  sprinkling  the  unclean, 
sanctifieth  no  farther  than  to  the  purifving  of  the  flesh.  How 
then  were  the  sins  of  the  Jews  cleansed  or  pardoned  ?  They 
obtained  pardon  of  God  according  to  the  discovery  of  grace  and 
forgiveness  scattered  up  and  down  through  all  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  and  especially  according  to  the  promises  made  and 
the  encouragements  given  to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  Is  it 
not  said,  "  He  shall  bring  his  trespass-offering  to  the  Lord,  and 
the  priest  shall  make  an  atonement  for  him  before  the  Lord, 
and  it  shall  be  forgiven  him-  ?"  This  tresjMSS-offering  would  set 
him  right  indeed  in  the  sight  of  God.,  as  king  of  the  nation 
against  whose  political  laws  the  man  had  committed  this  tres« 


20  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

pass  ;  but  it  never  was  designed  to  free  him  from  the  guilt  of 
his  sin  in  the  sight  of  God,  as  the  Lord  of  conscience,  unless 
he  repented  of  this  sin  in  his  heart,  and  trusted  in  the  mercy  of 
God  so  far  as  it  was  revealed  in  that  day ;  for  it  is  certain  truth 
that  "the  blood  of  beasts  cannot  take  away  sins." 

What  were  the  most  remarkable  sins  of  the  Jews  against  God 
in  the  wilderness  ?  Besides  their  murmuring  at  some  difficul- 
ties in  the  beginning  of  their  journey,  the  first  remarkable  and 
notorious  crime  was  their  making  a  golden  calf,  and  worshipping 
it  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai.  What  temptation  or  what  pre- 
tence could  they  have  for  such  a  crime  ?  Moses  was  gone  up 
into  Mount  Sinai,  and  tarried  there  so  many  days  longer  than 
they  expected,  that  they  wanted  some  visible  token  of  God's 
presence  among  them  ;  and  so  they  constrained  Aaron  to  make 
this  golden  image,  to  be  a  representation  of  the  presence  of 
God,  but  without  God's  appointment.  How  did  God  punish 
them  for  the  golden  calf  ?  The  children  of  Levi  were  com- 
manded to  slay  their  brethren,  and  they  slew  3,000  of  the 
children  of  Israel.  What  was  another  of  their  remarkable  sins  ? 
In  the  next  stage,  after  Sinai,  they  loathed  the  manna  which 
God  sent  them,  and  murmured  for  want  of  flesh.  How  was 
the  murmuring  punished  ?  God  gave  them  the  flesh  of  quails 
in  abundance,  and  sent  the  plague  with  it.  What  was  their 
third  remarkable  sin  ?  Being  discouraged  by  the  spies,  who 
searched  out  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  brought  an  ill  report  of 
that  promised  land,  they  were  for  making  a  captain,  to  return 
to  Egypt.  How  was  this  rebellion  chastised  ?  Ten  of  the  spies 
died  immediately  of  a  plague,  and  all  the  people  were  con- 
demned to  wander  forty  years  in  the  wilderness,  till  all  those 
who  were  above  twenty  years  old  should  die  by  degrees  in 
their  travels.  Who  of  the  spies  were  saved  ?  None  but  Caleb 
and  Joshua,  who  followed  the  Lord  fully,  and  gave  a  good  ac- 
count of  the  land  of  promise.  What  was  their  fourth  remark- 
able sin  ?  When  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram  stirred  up  a 
rebellion  against  Moses  and  Aaron.  What  was  the  occasion  of 
this  rebellion  of  Korah  and  his  companions  ?  They  pretended 
that  all  Israel  were  holy,  and  that  Aaron  and  his  family  had  no 
more  right  to  the  priesthood  than  they ;  and  that  Moses  took 
too  much  upon  him  to  determine  every  thing  among  them.  Ho\^ 
were  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram  punished  ?  They  and  their 
famihes  (the  sons  of  Korah  excepted)  were  swallowed  up  by  an 
earthquake,  and  their  two  hundred  and  fifty  companions  were 
burnt  by  a  fire  which  came  out  from  God  ;  and  when  the  con- 
gi-egation  murmured  against  Moses  and  Aaron  for  the  death  of 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  2\ 

these  sinners,  God  smote  above  fourteen  thousand  of  them,  and 
they  died  of  the  plague.  What  miracle  did  God  work  to  show 
that  he  had  chosen  Aaron's  family  to  the  priesthood  ?  He  bid 
the  heads  of  the  people  choose  twelve  rods  for  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  and  write  Aaron's  name  upon  Levi's  rod,  and  lay  them 
up  in  the  tabernacle  till  the  morrow :  at  which  time  they  took 
each  man  his  rod,  and  Aaron's  rod  blossomed  and  yielded 
almonds.  What  was  done  with  this  rod  of  Aaron  ?  It  was 
laid  up  in  the  ark  to  be  a  lasting  testimony  against  these  rebels, 
and  to  confirm  Aaron's  right  to  the  priesthood.  What  was  the 
fifth  remarkable  sin  of  the  people  ?  They  murmured  because 
of  the  length  of  the  way,  and  for  want  of  better  food  than 
manna.  How  was  this  new  murmuring  punished  ?  God 
sent  fiery  serpents  amongst  them,  which  destroyed  many  of 
them.  How  were  the  people  healed  who  were  bitten  by  the 
serpents  ?  By  looking  up  to  a  serpent  of  brass,  which  Moses 
put  upon  a  high  pole  at  God's  command.  What  was  the  sixth 
remarkable  sin  of  Israel  ?  Profligacy  and  idolatry.  Who 
tempted  them  to  this  idolatry  ?  Balaam  the  wicked  prophet 
and  soothsayer.  What  became  of  Balaam  at  last  ?  He  was 
slain  among  the  Midianites  by  the  men  of  Israel  under  the  con- 
duct of  Moses,  before  they  came  to  the  river  Jordan. 

What  became  of  the  people  of  Israel  after  all  their  wander- 
ings in  the  wilderness  ?  Though  their  sins  and  punishments 
were  many  and  great,  yet  they  were  not  destroyed  ;  but  God 
brought  them  at  last  into  Canaan,  the  land  which  he  promised 
to  their  fathers.  Did  Moses  lead  them  into  that  land  ?  No  ;  he 
was  only  permitted  to  see  it  from  Mount  Pisgah,  and  there  he 
died,  and  God  buried  him.  Did  Aaron  go  with  them  into 
Canaan  ?  Aaron  died  before  Moses,  and  Eleazar  his  son  was 
made  high-priest  in  his  room.  Why  were  not  Moses,  the  law- 
giver, and  Aaron,  the  high-priest,  suffered  to  bring  the  people 
into  the  land  of  promise  ?  Because  they  had  both  sinned,  and 
offended  God  in  the  wilderness,  and  God  would  show  his  dis- 
pleasure against  sin.  Who  was  appointed  to  lead  the  people  of 
Israel  into  the  promised  land  ?  Joshua,  whose  name  is  the 
same  with  Jesus,  and  who  came  to  be  the  governor  and  captain 
of  Israel  after  Moses  died.  How  did  they  get  over  the  river 
Jordan  ?  As  soon  as  the  priests  who  bore  the  ark  dipped  their 
feet  in  the  brink  of  the  river,  the  waters  which  were  above  rose 
up  in  a  heap,  and  the  channel  was  left  dry,  while  all  the  people 
passed  over.  What  memorial  did  they  leave  of  their  passing 
over  Jordan  on  foot?  By  God's  appointment  they  took  up 
twelve  stones  out  of  the  midst  of  Jordan,  where  the  priesta 


22  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

stood  with  the  ark  while  the  tribes  passed  over,  and  set  them 
up  as  a  monument  in  the  place  wherein  they  lodged  the  first 
night.  How  were  they  commanded  to  deal  with  the  Canaan- 
ites  when  they  took  their  land  ?  They  were  required  to  destroy 
them  utterly,  lest  if  they  should  live,  they  might  teach  Israel 
their  idolatries,  and  their  wicked  customs.  What  was  the  first 
city  they  took  in  Canaan  ?  Jericho,  whose  walls  fell  down 
when  by  God's  appointment  they  sounded  trumpets  made  of 
rams'  horns.  What  did  they  do  when  they  took  the  city  '  By 
God's  command  they  'devoted  it  as  the  first-fruits,  to  be  a  sacri- 
fice to  the  Lord,  and  therefore  they  burnt  all  the  goods  in  it, 
together  with  the  city,  as  well  as  destroyed  all  the  inhabitants, 
except  Rahab  the  harlot,  and  her  kindred.  Why  was  Rahab 
spared  ?  Because  she  believed  that  God  would  give  Israel  the 
land  of  Canaan,  and  she  hid  and  saved  the  spies  whom  Joshua 
sent.  How  did  they  take  the  city  of  Ai  ?  By  counterfeiting  a 
flight ;  and  when  the  men  of  Ai  were  drawn  out  of  the  city, 
the  Israelites,  who  lay  in  ambush,  entered  and  burnt  it.  How 
did  Israel  conquer  the  king  of  Jerusalem  with  his  four  allies  ? 
God  helped  Israel,  by  casting  great  hailstones  from  heaven 
upon  their  enemies.  What  remarkable  things  did  Joshua  do 
that  day  ?  He  bade  the  sun  and  moon  stand  still  to  lengthen 
out  the  day  for  his  victory,  and  they  obeyed  him.  What  did 
Joshua  do  with  the  five  kings  when  he  took  them  ?  He  called 
the  captains  of  Israel  to  set  their  feet  on  their  necks,  and  then 
he  slew  them,  and  hanged  them  upon  five  trees  before  the  Lord. 
Where  was  the  tabernacle  first  set  up  after  they  came  to  Canaan  ? 
In  Shiloh,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  at  some  distance  from  Jeru- 
salem, and  there  it  tarried  above  three  hundred  years,  even  to 
the  days  of  Samuel.  How  came  it  to  be  set  up  there  ?  By 
the  appointment  of  God ;  for  it  is  said,  "  He  set  his  name  first 
in  Shiloh."  How  was  the  land  of  Canaan  divided  among  the 
people  ?  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
had  their  inheritance  given  them  by  Moses  on  the  other  side  of 
Jordan,  and  Joshua  cast  lots  for  the  rest  of  the  tribes  before 
the  Lord  in  Shiloh.  Did  not  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad, 
and  half  Manasseh,  go  to  help  their  brethren  in  destroying  the 
Canaanites  ?  By  the  appointment  of  Moses,  they  went  over 
Jordan  to  assist  their  brethren,  till  they  were  settled  in  the  land. 
What  memorial  did  these  two  tribes  and  a  half  leave  in  the 
land  of  Canaan,  that  they  belonged  to  the  nation  of  Israel  ? 
They  built  a  great  altar  upon  the  borders  of  Jordan,  not  for  a 
sacrifice,  but  merely  as  a  memorial  of  their  interest  in  the  God 
of  Israel,  in  the  tabernacle,  and  m  the  worship  thereof.    Where 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  23 

was  the  tribe  of  Levi  disposed  of  ?  Being  devoted  to  the  sei-vice 
of  tlie  tabernacle  and  rehgion,  they  were  not  fixed  in  one  spot 
of  ground,  but  had  a  share  in  the  inheritance  of  every  tribe, 
that  they  might  teach  every  city  the  laws  of  God  and  their 
duty.  What  did  Joshua  do  just  before  his  death  ?  He  sum- 
moned the  people  together,  and  made  a  most  solemn  covenant 
with  them,  that  they  should  serve  the  Lord.  Did  the  Israelites 
drive  all  the  Canaanites  out  of  the  land  ?  No,  for  there  were 
some  left  for  several  hundred  years  after  Joshua's  death :  the 
Jebusites  and  the  Philistines  continued  till  the  days  of  David. 
What  were  the  most  common  sins  that  Israel  was  guilty  of  after 
their  settlement  in  Canaan  ?  They  fell  into  idolatry,  or  worship- 
ping the  gods  of  the  nations  round  about  them,  after  Joshua 
was  dead,  and  the  elders  of  the  people  of  that  age  who  outlived 
Joshua. 

Who  governed  the  people  of  Israel  after  Joshua's  death  ? 
God  was  always  the  king  and  ruler  of  Israel,  and  under  him  the 
several  tribes  probably  chose  their  own  magistrates  and  officers, 
according  to  the  appointment  of  Moses.  Was  not  the  high- 
priest  the  ruler  under  God  ?  The  high-priest  seems  to  have 
been  appointed  by  God  and  Moses  to  be  the  chief  counsellor  in 
declaring  the  laws  and  statutes  of  God,  as  the  other  priests  were 
also  counsellors ;  but  the  executive  power  of  government  was 
rather  vested  in  those  who  were  called  judges,  whether  they 
were  ordinary  or  extraordinary.  Did  these  ordinary  officers  do 
justice,  and  maintain  good  order  in  the  land  after  the  days  ot 
Joshua  ?  We  have  very  little  account  of  them ;  but  it  is  cer- 
tain they  did  not  fulfil  their  duty,  because  there  was  sometimes 
great  wickedness  among  the  people  without  restraint;  much 
idolatry  and  mischief,  both  public  and  private,  and  that  for 
want  of  government.  Why  did  God,  the  king  of  Israel,  leave 
his  people  under  these  inconveniences  ?  As  they  had  forsaken 
God  and  his  laws,  so  God  seemed  sometimes  to  have  forsaken 
the  care  of  them,  and  given  them  up  for  a  season  to  the  con- 
fusions and  miseries  which  arise  from  the  want  of  government, 
and  also  suffered  their  enemies,  on  every  side,  to  make  inroads 
upon  them,  and  bring  them  into  slavery.  But  did  not  the  great 
God  interpose  for  their  deliverance  ?  Sometimes  in  the  course 
of  his  providence,  and  by  special  inspiration,  he  raised  up  ex- 
traordinary judges  to  rescue  them  from  the  hand  of  their  ene- 
mies, and  to  restore  government  among  them.  Who  were  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  extraordinary  judges  raised  up 
to  rescue  the  people  of  Israel  ?  Ehud  and  Shamgar,  Deborah 
and  Gideon.  Jephthah,  Samson,  and  Samuel.    Who  was  Ehud  ? 


24  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY 

A  man  of  Benjamin,  wlio  delivered  Israel  from  the  oppiession 
of  Eglon,  king  of  Moab.  How  did  he  deliver  them  ?  By  bring- 
ing a  present  to  Eglon,  and  then  stabbing  him  with  a  dagger. 
What  did  Shamgar  do  towards  their  dehverance  ?  He  rescued 
Israel  from  the  oppressions  of  the  Philistines,  and  slew  six  hun- 
dred of  them  with  an  ox-goad.  Who  was  Deborah  ?  She 
was  a  woman,  a  prophetess,  who  delivered  Israel  from  th« 
tyranny  of  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  who  had  nine  hundred  char- 
iots of  iron.  How  did  she  deliver  Israel  from  his  hand  ?  She 
sent  forth  Barak  to  battle  against  him,  who  routed  his  army, 
which  was  commanded  by  Sisera  his  general.  How  was  Sisera 
slain  ?  By  the  hand  of  Jael,  a  woman,  who,  when  he  came  to 
rest  himself  in  her  tent,  drove  a  nail  into  his  temples.  Who 
was  Gideon  ?  The  son  of  Joash :  he  was  called  by  an  angel,  or 
by  God  himself,  to  destroy  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  to  deliver 
Israel  from  the  hands  of  the  Midianites.  How  did  he  begin  his 
work  ?  He  first  threw  down  the  altar  of  Baal,  the  idol,  by 
night,  and  cut  down  the  idolatrous  grove,  and  then  offered  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  according  to  the  order  he  had  received 
from  God.  What  further  sign  did  God  give  him  of  success  ? 
At  his  request  God  made  a  fleece  of  wool  wet,  when  the  ground 
all  around  it  was  dry  ;  and  again  he  made  a  fleece  of  wool  dry, 
when  the  ground  was  wet.  How  many  men  did  God  appoint 
for  Gideon's  army  ?  Out  of  thirty-two  thousand  he  appointed 
but  three  hundred  men.  How  did  the  three  hundred  men  con- 
quer Midian  ?  Each  of  them,  by  Gideon's  order,  took  a  trum- 
pet, and  a  pitcher  with  a  lamp  in  it,  and  coming  at  midnight  on 
the  camp  of  the  Midianites,  they  broke  their  pitchers,  and 
frightened  them  with  a  sudden  blaze  of  lamps,  the  sound  of  the 
trumpets,  and  loud  shouting.  Did  Gideon  reign  over  Israel 
after  this  great  victory  ?  No :  he  refused  to  reign,  for  he  said 
God  was  their  king.  Did  Gideon's  sons  govern  Israel  after- 
wards ?  None  of  Gideon's  threescore  and  ten  sons  set  up  them- 
selves, but  Abimelech,  the  son  of  his  concubine,  made  himself 
king.  How  did  Abimelech  advance  himself  to  the  kingdom  ? 
He  slew  all  his  threescore  and  ten  brothers,  except  the  young- 
est, who  escaped.  How  was  Abimelech  slain  ?  When  he  was 
besieging  a  city,  a  woman  cast  a  piece  of  millstone  upon  his 
head.  Who  was  Jephthah  ?  A  mighty  man  of  valor,  who  de- 
livered Israel  from  the  power  of  the  Ammonites.  What  was 
remarkable  concerning  him  ?  He  made  a  rash  vow  to  sacrifice 
to  God  the  first  thing  that  came  to  meet  him  after  his  victory, 
and  that  happened  to  be  his  daugliter  and  only  child.  Who 
was  Samson  ?     The  son  of  Manoah,  and  he  delivered  Israel 


4  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY,       .  25 

from  the  hands  of  the  Philistines.  What  was  his  character  ? 
He  was  the  strongest  of  men,  but  he  does  not  seem  to  hav? 
been  the  wisest  or  the  best.  What  instances  did  he  give  of  his 
great  strength  ?  He  tore  a  hon  asunder ;  he  broke  all  the 
cords  with  which  he  was  bound  ;  he  slew  a  thousand  Philistines 
with  the  jaw-bone  of  an  ass ;  and  when  the  Philistines  beset 
the  gates  of  Gaza,  he  carried  away  the  gate  and  gate-posts  of 
the  city  with  him,  when  he  made  his  way  out  and  escaped. 
What  befell  him  afterwards  ?  Delilah,  a  Philistine  woman,  cut 
off  his  hair,  and  then  betrayed  him  to  the  Philistines,  who  put 
out  his  eyes,  and  made  him  grind  in  a  mill.  What  was  Sam- 
son's end  ?  Thousands  of  the  Philistines  were  gathered  together 
to  make  sport  with  Samson ;  and  in  order  to  revenge  himself  of 
the  Phihstines,  and  to  destroy  the  enemies  of  Israel,  he  pulled  the 
house  down  upon  their  heads  and  his  own.  Who  judged  Israel 
after  Samson  ?  EU  the  high-priest  is  said  to  have  judged  Israel 
forty  years  ;  but  he  is  not  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  extraordi- 
nary judges  who  delivered  them,  but  rather  to  have  been  made 
an  ordinary  magistrate,  perhaps  over  some  part  of  the  land. 
Who  was  the  last  of  these  extraordinary  judges  ?  Samuel  the 
prophet,  the  son  of  Hannah,  a  pious  woman.  Where  was 
Samuel  brought  up  ?  As  he  was  requested  of  the  Lord,  so  he 
was  given  to  the  Lord,  and  was  brought  up  at  the  tabernacle  in 
Shiloh,  under  the  care  of  Eli,  the  high-priest.  What  was 
Samuel's  office  ?  He  waited  on  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  as 
a  Levite,  being  the  first-born,  and  being  given  to  God.  Was 
he  not  also  a  prophet  ?  Yes ;  God  called  him  three  times  in 
one  nig'ht  when  he  was  a  child,  and  made  a  prophet  of  him, 
and  told  him  what  calamities  should  befall  the  house  of  EH  the 
high-priest.  What  was  the  great  crime  of  Eli  ?  Though  he 
loved  and  honored  God  himself,  yet  he  did  not  restrain  his  sons 
from  wickedness.  In  what  manner  did  God  show  his  displeasure 
against  the  house  of  Eli?  His  two  sons  were  slain  by  th( 
Philistines  in  battle,  and  the  high-priesthood  went  into  another 
branch  of  Aaron's  family.  What  became  of  EU  himself  ?  When 
he  heard  that  the  ark  of  God  was  taken  by  the  Phihstines,  he 
fainted  for  grief,  and  falling  down  backward  he  broke  his  neck. 
What  did  the  Philistines  do  with  the  ark  of  God?  They 
brought  it  into  the  house  of  their  idol,  Dagon,  and  the  idol  fell 
down  and  broke  off  his  head  and  his  hands  upon  the  threshold. 
What  punishment  did  the  Philistines  suffer  for  keeping  the  ark  ? 
In  several  places  where  they  placed  it,  God  destroyed  many  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  smote  the  rest  with  sore  diseases.  What 
became  of  the  ark  then  ?     The  Philistines  put  it  into  a  new  cart 

3 


26  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE   HISTORY. 

dra^vn  by  two  milch-kine,  whose  calves  were  shut  up  at  home, 
and  yet  they  carried  it  directly  into  the  land  of  Israel  to  BetJi- 
shemesh.  What  did  the  men  of  Bethshemesh  do  ?  They  looked 
into  the  ark,  which  was  utterly  forbidden,  and  God  smote  many 
of  them  with  a  great  slaughter,  and  they  sent  the  ark  away  to 
Kirjath-jearim.  How  did  Samuel  deliver  Israel  from  the  Phi- 
listines when  they  made  a  new  war  upon  them  ?  He  offered  a 
burnt-offering,  and  prayed  to  the  Lord,  and  God  fought  against 
the  Philistines  with  thunder  from  heaven,  and  scattered  and 
destroyed  them.  How  did  Samuel  govern  the  people  ?  He 
travelled  through  the  land  every  year ;  he  judged  Israel  with 
great  honor  and  justice  for  many  years  ;  but  m  his  old  age  he 
made  his  sons  judges,  and  they  oppressed  and  abused  the 
people.  What  was  the  request  of  the  people  on  this  occasion  ? 
That  they  might  have  a  king  like  the  rest  of  the  nations.  What 
did  Samuel  do  in  this  case  ?  He  w^ould  have  advised  them 
against  it,  because  God  was  their  king,  but  they  still  persisted 
in  desiring  a  man  for  a  king.  Did  Samuel  gratify  them  in  this 
desire  ?  Being  admonished  of  God,  he  complied  with  their 
desire,  and  appointed  a  king  over  them. 

Who  was  the  first  king  of  Israel  ?  Saa],  a  very  tall  young 
man,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite.  How  did  Samuel  first  meet 
wuth  him  ?  Saul  was  sent  by  his  father  to  seek  some  asses  that 
he  had  lost,  and  asking  Samuel  about  them,  Samuel  took  him 
aside  privately,  and  anointed  him  king  of  Israel.  But  how  was 
he  made  king  publicly  ?  God  chose  and  determined  Saul  to  be 
king  by  casting  lots  among  the  tribes  and  families  of  Israel. 
How  did  Saul  behave  himself  in  his  kingdom  ?  He  governed 
well  at  first  for  a  little  time,  but  afterwards  he  disobeyed  the 
word  of  God  in  several  instances,  and  God  rejected  him.  Whom 
did  God  choose  in  his  room  ?  David,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
who  is  called  the  man  after-  God's  own  heart.  Who  were  the 
forefathers  of  David  ?  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Jesse,  who 
was  the  son  of  Obed,  who  was  the  son  of  Boaz  by  Ruth  his 
wife.  How  did  God  anoint  him  to  be  king  ?  He  sent  Samuel 
secretly  to  anoint  him  with  oil  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  midst  of  his 
brethren.  How  did  David  make  his  first  appearance  at  court  ? 
David  understood  music,  and  when  the  evil  spirit  of  melancholy 
came  upon  Saul,  hearing  of  David's  skill  in  music,  he  sent  for 
him  to  play  on  the  harp  to  refresh  him.  What  remarkable  ac- 
tion made  him  more  publicly  known  ?  When  Goliath  the  giant 
challenged  the  men  of  Israel,  David  undertook  the  combat,  and 
slew  him  with  a  sling  and  a  stone.  What  became  of  Saul  at 
last  ?     The  Philistines  invaded  Israel,  and  Saul  was  in  grea» 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  27 

distress,  because  God  gave  him  no  directions,  nor  answered  liim 
by  dreams,  nor  by  the  priests,  nor  prophets  :  he  then  inquired 
of  a  woman  who  had  a  famiUar  spirit,  and  was  informed  that 
he  and  his  sons  should  die  on  the  morrow,  which  came  to  pass. 
Where  was  David  all  this  while  ?  He  was  fled  a  second  time 
to  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  and  he  had  been  just  then  employed  in 
destroying  the  Amalekites,  who  had  plundered  the  city  of  Zik- 
lag,  where  he  dwelt.  What  did  David  do  upon  the  death  oi 
Saul  ?  He  made  an  elegy  upon  him  3,nd  Jonathan  his  son,  and 
went  up  to  Hebron,  a  city  of  Judah,  by  God's  direction,  where 
the  men  of  Judah  made  him  their  king.  How  long  did  David 
reign  at  Hebron  ?  Seven  years  and  a  half ;  and  then  all  Israel 
came  to  him  and  chose  him  for  their  king,  and  brought  him  up 
to  Jerusalem.  How  did  David  govern  Israel  ?  He  executed 
judgment  and  justice  among  all  the  people.  What  were  the 
chief  blemishes  of  David's  life  ?  His  adultery  with  Bathsheba, 
the  wife  of  Uriah,  and  his  pride  in  numbering  the  people  of 
Israel.  What  were  some  of  the  chief  troubles  that  actually 
came  on  David's  family  ©n  account  of  his  sins  ?  The  rebellion 
and  death  of  his  children,  except  only  Solomon.  What  was 
the  other  remarkable  crime  of  David,  besides  his  abuse  and 
murder  of  Uriah  ?  The  pride  of  his  heart  in  numbering  all 
the  people  of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  that  he  might  know  how  great 
a  king  he  was.  How  was  he  punished  for  this  sin  ?  God  gave 
him  leave  to  choose  one  of  these  three  punishments,  either  seven 
years'  famine,  or  three  months  of  war,  or  three  days'  pestilence. 
Which  did  David  choose  ?  The  famine,  or  the  pestilence,  rather 
than  war ;  for  he  chose  rather  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  God 
than  of  man.  What  was  the  trouble  that  David  met  with  from 
his  son  Adonijah  ?  When  David  was  old,  Adonijah  set  himself 
up  for  king.  How  came  Adonijah  to  be  so  insolent  ?  His  father 
liumored  him  too  much  all  his  life,  and  never  displeased  him. 
What  did  David  do  under  this  trouble  ?  He  proclaimed  Solo- 
mon, the  son  of  Bathsheba,  king,  in  his  own  lifetime  ;  and  Zadok 
the  priest,  and  Nathan  the  prophet,  anointed  him  king  of  Israel. 
How  long  did  David  reign  in  all  ?  Forty  years,  and  then  he 
died  in  his  bed  in  peace.  What  did  David  do  towards  the 
building  of  the  Temple  before  his  death  ?  He  made  a  vast 
preparation  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  and  other  mateiials,  and 
gave  the  pattern  of  every  thing  to  his  son  Solomon,  as  he  re- 
ceived it  of  God. 

What  was  the  general  character  of  Solomon  ?  That  he  was 
the  wisest  of  men.  Wherein  did  his  wisdom  towards  God  ap- 
pear ?     In  that  he  asked  not  long  life,  nor  riches,  nor  honors, 


28  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

but  understanding  and  knowledge,  to  govern  so  great  a  people. 
What  special  care  did  Solomon  take  for  the  worship  of  God  t 
He  built  that  temple  for  which  David  had  made  so  large  a 
preparation.  It  was  a  most  glorious  palace,  built  of  cedar,  and 
fir,  and  olive-wood,  and  hewn  stone,  with  most  amazing  expense 
of  gold,  and  silver,  and  brass,  and  precious  stones,  both  f6r  the 
adorning  of  the  house  itself,  and  for  the  holy  vessels  thereof. 
He  built  also  two  distinct  courts  about  it,  one  for  the  people  of 
Israel,  and  one  for  the  priests,  all  of  which  were  called  "  the 
Temple."  In  what  form  did  he  build  it  ?  In  imitation  of  the 
tabernacle  of  Moses  and  the  court  thereof,  but  with  vast  and 
universal  improvement  in  the  grandeur,  riches,  and  magnificence 
of  it,  by  the  pattern  that  David  his  father  received  from  God, 
and  gave  to  him.  Wherein  did  God  bless  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon ?  By  giving  him  prodigious  treasures  and  magnificent 
state,  and  spreading  the  fame  of  his  greatness  and  wisdom  over 
all  nations.  How  long  did  Solomon  reign  ?  Forty  years  ;  and 
though  he  had  many  wives,  he  left  but  one  son  behind  him, 
Rehoboam,  to  succeed  him  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  What  was 
the  character  of  Rehoboam  ?  Though  Solomon  had  written  so 
many  excellent  lessons  of  morality  and  piety  for  his  son  in  the 
book  of  Proverbs,  and  given  him  so  many  warnings,  yet  he 
followed  evil  courses ;  and  Solomon  himself  seems  to  intimate 
it  in  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  chap.  ii.  19:  "Who  knoweth 
whether  his  son  will  be  a  wise  man  or  a  fool  ?"  What  further 
occasion  did  Rehoboam  give  for  the  revolt  of  the  tribes  of  Is- 
rael from  him  ?  Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  and  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  he  despised  the  counsel  of  the  old  men,  aui^ 
hearkened  to  the  advice  of  rash  young  men  ;  he  threatened  the 
nation  of  Israel  to  "make  their  yoke  heavier"  than  his  father 
had  done,  that  is,  to  lay  heavier  taxes  on  them.  What  followed 
upon  this  threatening  of  king  Rehoboam  ?  All  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  except  Judah  and  Benjamin,  made  Jeroboam  their  king ; 
and  thus  the  nation  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  which  were 
afterwards  called  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  the  kingdom  of 
Israel. 

How  many  kings  reigned  over  Israel  after  they  were  separated 
from  Judah  ?  These  nineteen,  and  not  one  of  them  was  good  : 
Jeroboam  I.,  Nadab,  Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  Omri,  Ahab,  Ahaziah, 
Jehoram,  Jehu,  Jehoahaz,  Joash,  Jeroboam  II.,  Zachariah,  Shal- 
lum,  Menahem,  Pekahiah,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea.  Who  were  the 
most  remarkable  among  these  kings  of  Israel  ?  Jeroboam  I., 
Omri,  Ahab,  Ahaziah,  Jehu,  Joash,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea.  What 
was  the  chief  character  and  crime  of  Jeroboam  ?     Instead  oi 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  29 

worsliipping  God,  who  dwelt  between  the  cherubim  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  he  made  two  golden  images  which  are  called 
calves,  and  set  them  up  in  two  distant  parts  of  Israel,  namely, 
Dan  and  Bethel,  and  taught  the  people  to  worship  before  them. 
What  was  the  worship  he  appointed  ?  Something  like  the 
worship  which  God  appointed  at  Jerusalem,  with  an  altar,  and 
priests,  and  sacrifices,  and  incense.  For  what  end  did  Jero- 
boam do  this  ?  He  feared,  if  the  people  went  up  frequently  to 
sacrifice  at  Jerusalem,  they  would  be  tempted  to  return  again 
to  Rehoboam  king  of  Judah.  What  visible  token  of  displeasure 
did  God  manifest  against  this  worship  which  Jeroboam  set  up  ? 
He  sent  a  prophet  to  the  altar  at  Bethel,  who  foretold  that  a 
son  of  the  house  of  David,  Josiah  by  name,  should  burn  the 
bones  of  Jeroboam's  priests  upon  the  altar.  What  sign  did  the 
prophet  give  that  this  prophecy  should  be  fulfilled  ?  The  prophet 
foretold  that  the  altar  should  be  rent  asunder,  and  the  ashes 
poured  out,  both  of  which  were  fulfilled  immediately :  and  Jero- 
boam's hand  withered  when  he  stretched  it  out  to  lay  hold  of 
the  prophet,  though  at  the  prayer  of  the  prophet  God  restored 
it  again.  Who  was  Omri  ?  The  captain  of  the  host  of  Israel, 
who  was  made  king  by  the  people  when  Zimri  set  up  himself. 
Who  was  Ahab,  and  what  was  his  character  ?  Ahab  was  the 
son  of  Omri,  who  followed  the  wicked  ways  of  his  predecessors : 
he  sinned  against  God  and  man  grievously,  and  provoked  God 
beyond  all  who  were  before  him.  How  did  God  signify  his 
displeasure  against  Ahab  ?  He  sent  Elijah  the  prophet  to  re- 
prove him,  and  to  foretell  that  there  should  be  neither  dew  nor 
rain  for  several  years,  which  accordingly  came  to  pass.  How 
was  Ehjah  himself  fed  during  this  famine  ?  He  was  appointed 
to  hide  himself  by  the  brook  Cherith,  and  the  ravens  brought 
him  bread  and  flesh  in  the  morning  and  the  evening,  and  he 
drank  of  the  water  of  the  brook.  Whither  did  the  prophet  go 
when  the  brook  was  dried  up  ?  God  sent  him  to  a  woman  of 
^arepta  near  Sidon,  to  be  maintained  by  her,  when  she  had  only 
a  handful  of  meal  in  a  barrel,  and  a  little  oil  in  a  cnise.  How 
could  this  maintain  the  woman,  her  son,  and  the  prophet  ?  God 
wonderfully  increased  the  oil  and  the  meal,  so  that  the  barrel 
of  meal  wasted  not,  neither  did  the  cruse  of  oil  fail,  till  God 
sent  rain  upon  the  land.  What  further  miracles  did  Elijah  work 
in  this  woman's  family,  to  prove  that  he  was  sent  from  God  ? 
When  her  son  died,  the  prophet  raised  him  to  life  again. 
What  special  deliverance  did  God  give  Israel  in  the  time 
of  Ahab  ?  Though  Ahab  was  so  great  a  sinner,  yet  God 
made  Israel  victorious  over  the  Syrians  who  invaded  them,  ba- 


30  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

cause  Benliadad  the  king  of  Syria  boasted  aid  blasphemed  G(xl. 
What  were  some  of  the  special  sins  cf  Ahab  against  God  ?  Be- 
sides the  idolatry  of  the  calves,  he  a>so  set  up  the  idol  Baal,  he 
caused  Israel  to  worship  it,  and  by  the  influence  of  his  wife 
Jezebel,  slew  a  great  number  of  the  prophets  of  the  Lord. 
Were  any  of  the  prophets  of  the  Lord  saved  ?  Obadiah,  the 
governor  of  Ahab's  house,  hid  a  hundred  of  them  in  two  caves, 
and  fed  them  with  bread  and  water,  while  Elijah  fled  whereso- 
ever  he  could  find  a  hiding-place.  How  did  Elijah  bring  about 
the  destruction  of  Baal's  prophets  ?  He  boldly  met  Ahab,  and 
bid  him  summon  all  Israel  together,  and  the  four  hundred  and 
fifty  prophets  of  Baal,  that  a  sacrifice  might  be  off'ered  to  Baal 
and  to  Jehovah,  to  make  an  experiment  which  was  the  true 
God.  How  did  he  convince  the  people  that  Jehovah  was  the 
true  God  ?  Fire  came  down  from  heaven  and  consumed  Elijah's 
sacrifice,  after  he  had  poured  great  quantities  of  water  upon  it ; 
which  the  prophets  attempted  in  vain  to  procure  on  their  altar 
though  they  cut  themselves  with  knives,  and  cried  aloud  to  thai 
God.  What  influence  had  this  upon  the  people  ?  They  fell 
upon  their  faces,  and  acknowledged  Jehovah  to  be  the  true 
God ;  and  then,  at  the  command  of  Elijah,  the  people  slew  all 
the  prophets  of  Baal.  How  did  God  further  manifest  his  ap- 
probation of  this  conduct  of  Elijah  ?  He  immediately  sent  rain, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  famine.  What  was  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable sins  of  Ahab  against  man  ?  He  coveted  the  vineyard 
of  Naboth,  and  by  the  help  of  false  witnesses  stoned  Naboth  to 
death  for  blasphemy,  and  took  possession  of  his  land.  What 
was  the  manner  of  Ahab's  death  after  so  wicked  a  life  ?  In 
opposition  to  the  prophecy  of  Micaiah,  he  went  to  fight  with  the 
king  of  Syria,  and  received  a  mortal  wound.  Wherein  did  the 
judgment  of  God  against  Ahab  appear  in  his  death  ?  The  dogs 
licked  up  his  blood,  on  that  spot  of  ground  where  Naboth's 
blood  was  shed,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Elijah.  What 
sort  of  a  man  was  Ahaziah  ?  Ahaziali  was  the  son  of  Ahab, 
who  succeeded  him  in  his  kingdom,  and  followed  his  wicked 
ways.  What  particular  crimes  of  Ahaziah  are  recorded? 
When  he  was  sick,  he  sent  to  inquire  of  Baalzebub,  the  god  of 
Ekron,  about  his  recovery ;  and  because  Elijah  reproved  him 
for  it,  he  sent  out  three  captains,  each  with  fifty  men,  to  make 
Elijah  their  prisoner.  What  did  Elijah  do  on  this  occasion  ? 
He  brought  down  fire  from  heaven,  which  consumed  the  first 
two  of  them  with  their  troops,  but  he  spared  the  third  upon  his 
entreaty,  and  then  went  down  with  him  to  king  Ahaziah,  and 
\old  him  he  should  surely  die.    How  did  Elijah  leave  the  world  * 


i  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  3i 

He  was  taken  up  to  heaven  in  a  whirlwind,  by  a  chariot  and 
horses  of  fire,  and  left  his  mantle  behind  him.  Who  succeeded 
Elijah  in  the  office  of  prophet  ?  Elisha,  who  was  with  him 
when  he  was  taken  up  to  heaven,  and  had  a  double  portion  of 
the  spirit  of  Elijah  given  him.  What  were  some  of  the  chief 
miracles  and  prophecies  of  Elisha?  1.  He  smote  the  waters  of 
Jordan  with  Elisha's  mantle,  saying.  Where  is  the  Lord  God  of 
Elijah  ?  and  the  waters  divided  for  him  to  pass  over.  2.  He 
cured  the  unwholesome  water  near  Jericho,  by  casting  salt  into 
it.  3.  He  cursed  some  children  that  mocked  and  reproached 
him,  and  there  came  two  she-bears  out  of  the  wood,  and  tore  to 
pieces  forty-two  of  them.  4.  He  brought  water  in  a  time  of 
drought  to  supply  three  armies,  namely,  those  of  Edom,  Judah, 
and  Israel.  5.  He  increased  the  widow's  pot  of  oil,  that  it  was 
sufficient  to  pay  her  debts  and  maintain  her.  6.  He  promised 
a  son  to  the  Shunamite  woman  who  entertained  him,  who  was 
before  barren  ;  and  raised  this  son  to  life  again  when  he  died. 
7.  He  healed  Naaman  the  Syrian  of  his  leprosy,  by  bidding  him 
wash  in  Jordan.  8.  He  pronounced  the  plague  of  leprosy  on 
Gehazi,  his  own  servant,  for  his  covetousness  and  lying.  9.  He 
made  the  iron  head  of  an  axe  float  on  the  water,  that  it  might 
be  restored  to  its  owner.  10.  He  discovered  the  king  of  Syria's 
private  counsels  to  the  king  of  Israel,  and  smote  his  anny  with 
blindness.  11.  He  foretold  vast  plenty  on  the  morrow,  in  the 
midst  of  a  siege  and  famine  in  Samaria.  12.  He  foretold  the 
death  of  Benhadad  the  king  of  Syria  :  and  that  Hazael  should 
succeed  him,  and  treat  Israel  with  cruelty.  Who  was  Jehu,  and 
how  came  he  to  the  kingdom  ?  Jehu  was  a  captain,  who  was 
anointed  king  by  the  prophet  whom  Elisha  sent  for  that  pur- 
pose, according  to  the  appointment  of  God  and  Elijah.  What 
was  the  great  work  for  which  God  raised  up  Jehu  to  the  king- 
dom ?  To  destroy  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  to  bring  the  threat- 
ened judgments  on  the  house  of  Ahab  for  their  wickedness. 
How  did  Jehu  execute  this  bloody  work  upon  the  house  of 
Ahab  ?  These  three  ways  :  He  shot  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Ahab, 
who  was  then  king,  with  an  arrow,  and  cast  him  upon  the  land 
of  Naboth;  whom  Ahab  slew.  2.  He  commanded  Jezebel,  the 
wicked  and  idolatrous  queen-mother,  to  be  thrown  out  of  tlio 
window,  and  the  dogs  ate  her  up.  3.  He  ordered  the  seventy 
remaining  sons  of  Ahab  to  be  skin  in  Samaria,  and  their  heads 
to  be  brought  him  in  baskets.  How  did  he  destroy  the  worship 
of  Baal  ?  He  gathered  the  prophets  of  Baal,  and  his  priests, 
and  his  worshippers,  together  into  the  temple,  under  a  pretence 
of  a  great  sacrifice  to  Baal ;  and  then  commanded  thtm  all  to  be 


32  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

slain  with  the  sword,  and  the  image  to  be  burnt,  and  the  teji- 
pie  to  be  destroyed.  Did  Jehu  continue  to  obey  God  in  all 
things  ?  No ;  for  though  he  executed  the  vengeance  of  God 
against  Ahab,  and  the  worshippers  of  Baal,  yet  he  maintained 
the  idolatry  of  Jeroboam,  namely,  the  calves  of  Dan  and  Bethel. 
Who  was  Joash  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Jehoahaz,  the  son  of  Je- 
hu, and  he  reigned  over  Israel.  What  is  there  remarkable  in 
his  conduct  ?  When  Elisha  was  upon  his  death-bed,  he  came 
down  to  see  him,  and  wept  over  him,  yet  he  depaited  not  from 
tlie  sins  of  Jeroboam.  What  did  he  do  for  the  good  of  Israel  ? 
According  to  the  prophecy  of  dying  Elisha,  he  smote  the  Syrians 
thrice,  who  had  oppressed  Israel  in  the  days  of  his  father.  Is 
there  any  thing  of  moment  recorded  concerning  Elisha  after 
his  death  ?  They  buried  a  man  the  year  following  in  the 
sepulchre  of  Elisha,  and  as  soon  as  he  touched  the  bones  of 
Elisha,  he  revived,  and  stood  upon  his  feet.  What  did  Joash 
do  against  Judah  ?  When  Amaziah  king  of  Judah  provoked 
him  to  war,  he  routed  the  army  of  Judah,  and  took  the  king 
prisoner :  he  brake  down  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  plundered 
the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  the  king's  house,  of  all  the  gold  and 
silver  vessels*  Did  any  remarkable  thing  happen  in  the  reign 
of  Pekah  ?  This  Pekah  joined  with  the  king  of  Syria  to  invade 
Judah,  but  he  was  repulsed.  In  his  days  Tiglath  Pileser,  king 
of  Assyna,  took  many  cities  in  Gahlee,  and  carried  many  of  the 
people  captive  to  Assyna.  Who  was  Hoshea,  and  what  is 
recorded  of  him  ?  He  was  the  last  king  of  Israel ;  he  slew  Pe- 
kah, and  made  himself  king.  How  came  the  kingdom  to  end  in 
him  ?  In  his  days  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  took  the  city 
of  Ss  maria,  bound  Hoshea  the  king  in  prison,  carried  multitudes 
of  Ii  rael  captive  into  Assyria,  and  distributed  them  into  several 
distant  countries,  from  which  they  have  never  returned  to  this 
day  What  provoked  Shalmaneser  to  do  this  ?  Hoshea  had 
submitted  to  him,  and  afterwards  plotted  and  rebelled  against 
hira.  What  provoked  God  to  punish  Israel  thus  ?  The  people 
of  Israel,  with  all  their  kings,  after  their  separation  from  the 
house  of  David,  had  been  guilty  of  continual  idolatry,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  many  precepts  and  warnings  of  God,  by  the  writings 
of  Moses,  and  the  voice  of  all  the  prophets.  What  became  ot 
Samaria,  and  the  other  cities  of  Israel,  when  the  people  were 
diiven  out  of  them  ?  Several  of  the  heathen  nations  were  placed 
there,  and  each  worshipped  their  own  gods  and  idols ;  where- 
fore the  Lord  sent  lions  amongst  them,  and  destroyed  many  of 
them.  What  was  done  on  this  occasion  to  appease  the  anger 
of  God,  and  save  the  people  from  the  hons?     The  king  of 


A  SHORT   VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  33 

Assyria  sent  a  Jewish  priest  thither,  to  teach  them  the  worship 
of  tlie  God  of  Israe]  What  was  the  effect  of  this  conduct  of 
the  king  of  Assyria  ?  These  nations  feared  the  God  of  Israel, 
and  yet  they  could  not  lay  aside  their  own  idolatries,  for  they 
continued  to  serve  their  own  graven  images  also  in  many  follow- 
ing generations.  But  did  they  always  continue  in  this  mixed 
kind  of  religion  ?  In  process  of  time  they  forsook  their  idols, 
worshipped  the  true  God  only,  and  submitted  themselves  to  the 
Jewish  religion,  so  as  to  receive  the  five  books  of  Moses  ;  they 
had  a  temple  of  their  own  built  on  mount  Gerizim,  and  in  the 
New  Testament  are  called  Samaritans. 

How  many  kings  and  rulers  reigned  over  Judah  ?  Twenty ; 
namely,  Rehoboam,  Abijah,  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Jehoram,  Aha- 
ziah,  Athahah,  the  queen,  Joash,  Amaziah,  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  Hezekiah,  Manasseh,  Amon,  Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim, 
Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah.  Were  all  these  rulers  of  Judah  also 
great  sinners  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Israel  ?  A  few  of  them 
were  very  religious,  some  very  wicked,  and  others  of  an  indiffer- 
ent or  mixed  character.  What  fell  out  in  Rehoboam's  reign, 
after  the  ten  tribes  had  made  Jeroboam  their  king  ?  When 
Rehoboam  raised  a  great  army  out  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  to 
recover  the  ten  tribes,  God,  by  his  prophet,  forbade  them  to 
proceed.  Were  there  no  wars  then  between  Judah  and  Israel  ? 
Yes  :  in  the  following  times  there  were  bloody  wars  between 
them.  How  did  the  people  of  Judah  behave  themselves  under 
the  government  of  Rehoboam?  They  fell  into  idolatry  and 
shameful  sins,  whereupon  God  was  angry,  and  Shishak,  king  of 
Egypt,  plundered  the  temple  and  the  king's  house  of  their 
treasures,  in  the  fifth  year  of  Rehoboam's  reign.  So  short-lived 
was  the  supreme  grandeur  and  glory  of  the  Jewish  church  and 
state !  Did  Abijah,  the  son  of  Rehoboam,  do  any  thing  re- 
markable in  his  reign  ?  He  made  a  speech  and  pleaded  against 
Israel,  when  Jeroboam  led  them  to  war  against  him ;  he  re- 
proved them  for  their  departure  from  the  true  worship  of  God, 
and  from  the  house  of  David ;  and  when  they  would  not 
hearken,  but  set  upon  him  in  battle,  he  and  his  army  cried  unto 
the  Lord,  and  shouted,  and  slew  five  hundred  thousand  men. 
A  striking  example  of  divine  success !  What  is  recorded  con- 
cerning Asa,  the  son  of  Abijah,  the  king  of  Judah  ?  That  he 
did  what  was  right  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  and  destroyed  the 
idols  which  had  been  set  up  in  the  land.  What  token  of  favor 
did  God  show  him  ?  When  he  called  upon  the  Lord,  and 
trusted  to  him,  he  defeated  the  army  of  the  Ethiopians,  who 
came  against  him,  though  they  were  a  thousand  thousand.    Did 


34  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

Asa  continue  all  his  days  to  fear  the  Lord  ?  In  his  old  age  he 
fell  into  distrust  of  God,  and  he  gave  the  treasure  that  remain- 
ed in  the  house  of  God,  and  in  the  king's  house,  to  the  king  of 
Syria,  to  guard  and  help  him  against  Baasha,  the  king  of 
Israel  ;  and  he  imprisoned  the  prophet  who  reproved  him  for 
it.  What  is  remarkable  in  Asa's  death  ?  That  in  the  disease 
of  his  feet  (which  is  supposed  to  be  the  gout)  he  sought  not  the 
Lord,  but  only  to  the  physicians;  "and  he  slept  with  his 
fathers."  How  did  his  son  Jehoshaphat  behave  himself  in  the 
kingdom  ?  He  walked  in  the  first  and  best  ways  of  his  father 
David,  and  God  was  with  him.  Wherein  did  Jehoshaphat 
particularly  discover  his  piety  and  goodness  ?  He  appointed 
Levitcs  and  priests  throughout  all  the  cities  of  Judah,  to  teach 
the  law  of  the  Lord ;  and  he  set  judges  in  the  land,  with  a 
solemn  charge  to  do  justice  without  bribery.  Wherein  did  God 
manifest  his  special  favor  to  Jehoshaphat  ?  God  gave  him  very 
great  treasures,  and  thq  fear  of  the  Lord  fell  upon  all  the  king- 
doms round  about  Judah,  so  that  for  many  years  they  made  no 
war  upon  him.  Did  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  imitate 
his  father's  government  in  piety  ?  By  no  means  ;  for  he  slew 
all  his  own  brethren,  he  walked  in  the  ways  of  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel,  and  took  his  daughter  Athahah  to  wife.  How  did  God 
testify  his  displeasure  against  Jehoram  ?  He  smote  Jehoram 
with  such  an  incurable  distemper  that  his  bowels  fell  out,  and 
he  died  of  sore  diseases.  Who  succeeded  Jehoram  in  the  king- 
dom ?  Ahaziah,  his  youngest  son,  for  all  his  eldest  were  slain 
in  the  camp  by  the  Arabians.  Who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Judah  when  Ahaziah  was  dead  ?  Athahah  his  mother  seized 
the  kingdom,  and  destroyed  all  the  seed-royal  of  the  house  of 
Judah,  except  Joash,  the  son  of  Ahaziah,  an  infant  of  a  year  old, 
who  was  hid  in  the  temple.  How  did  Athaliah  reign  ?  As  she 
counselled  her  son  Ahaziah  before,  so  she  herself  practised  the 
idolatry  of  the  house  of  Ahab.  What  was  the  conduct  of 
Joash  in  his  government  ?  He  did  that  which  was  right  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Jehoiada  the  priest,  who  was 
his  uncle  ;  he  repaired  the  temple,  and  the  vessels  thereof,  and 
restored  the  worship  of  God.  How  did  Joash  behave  after  Je- 
hoiada's  death  ?  He  was  persuaded  to  change  the  worship  of 
God  for  idols,  and  most  ungratefully  slew  Zechariah  the  son  of 
Jehoiada,  because  he  reproved  the  idolatry  of  the  people.  In 
what  manner  did  God  punish  him  for  his  crime  ?  He  sent  an 
army  of  the  Syrians  against  him,  who  pillaged  the  country ;  he 
smote  him  with  sore  diseases,  and  at  last  his  own  servants  slew 
him  on  his  bed.    How  did  Amaziah  the  son  of  Joash  reigjn  ? 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRU'TURE  HISTORf.  35 

At  first  he  seemed  to  work  righteousness,  and  hearkened  to  the 
voice  of  God  and  his  prophets ;  but  afterwards,  gaining  a  victory 
over  the  Edomites,  he  learned  to  worship  the  gods  of  Edom. 
Wliat  were  the  character  and  reign  of  Uzziah  the  king  ?  He 
was  made  king  at  sixteen  years  old,  in  the  room  of  his  father 
Amaziah ;  he  sought  after  God  in  the  days  of  Zechariah  the 
prophet,  and  God  prospered  his  arms  against  all  his  enemies, 
and  made  his  name  great.  Is  there  any  thing  very  remarkable 
in  the  reign  of  Jotham  the  son  of  Uzziah  ?  He  was  a  good 
king,  and  God  blessed  his  arms,  so  that  he  brought  the  Am- 
monites under  tribute.  How  did  Ahaz,  the  son  of  Jotham,  be- 
liave  himself  ?  He  Avalked  in  the  ways  of  the  kings  of  Israel, 
made  images  for  Baal,  and  offered  his  children  in  sacrifice  by 
fire,  after  the  abominations  of  the  heathen.  How  did  God  show 
his  displeasure  against  Ahaz  ?  His  land  was  invaded  by  the 
king  of  Syria,  and  by  the  king  of  Israel :  multitudes  of  his  peo- 
ple were  slain,  and  many  captives  were  carried  to  Damascus 
and  to  Samaria,  though  the  Israelites  restored  their  captives 
again  at  the  word  of  the  prophet  Oded.  What  further  iniquities 
of  Ahaz  are  recorded  ?  That  he  set  aside  the  brazen  altar 
which  was  before  the  Lord,  and  set  up  another  in  the  .court  of 
the  temple,  according  to  the  pattern  of  an  altar  he  had  seen  at 
Damascus,  and  at  last  fell  in  with  the  idolatry  of  the  heathen 
nations.  Did  Hezekiah,  the  son  of  Ahaz,  continue  in  the  sins  of 
his  father  ?  No  ;  but  he  made  a  great  reformation,  not  only  in 
J  udah,  but  also  in  Ephraim  and  Manasseh ;  he  brake  the  images, 
cut  down  their  groves,  destroyed  their  altars,  repaired  the  temple, 
and  restored  the  worship  of  the  true  God  there.  What  pecuhar 
instance  did  he  give  of  his  zeal  against  all  manner  of  idolatry  ? 
He  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen  serpent  that  Moses  had  made  in 
the  wilderne&s,  because  the  people  burnt  incense  to  it.  In  what 
manner  did  he  keep  the  passover  ?  He  sent  to  all  Israel,  as  well  as 
to  Judah,  to  invite  them  to  keep  the  passover  at  Jerusalem,  ac- 
cording to  the  appointment  of  God.  Did  the  other  tribes  of 
Israel  come  at  his  invitation  ?  Some  mocked  the  message,  but 
many  out  of  several  tribes  came  to  the  passover,  so  that  there 
was  not  the  like  since  the  time  of  Solomon.  Were  all  these 
people  sufficiently  purified  to  keep  the  passover  ?  No  ;  but  at 
the  prayer  of  Hezekiah,  the  Lord  pardoned  and  accepted  them, 
though  several  things  in  this  passover  were  not  exactly  con- 
formable to  the  holy  institution.  Wherein  did  God  show  his 
acceptance  of  Hezekiah's  zeal  and  piety  ?  God  prospered  him 
m  his  wars  against  his  enemies,  and  enabled  him  to  cast  off  the 
yoke  of  the  king  of  Assyria  while  he  trusted  in  him.     What 


36  A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY. 

weakness  was  Hezekiah  guilty  o(  afterwards,  when  Sennacherib^ 
king  of  Assyria,  invaded  Judah  ?  He  bribed  him  to  depart 
with  gold  and  silver  taken  from  the  house  of  God.  What  suc- 
cess had  this  conduct  of  Hezekiah  ?  Very  ill  success ;  for, 
some  years  after,  Sennacherib  sent  an  irmy  to  take  Jerusalem. 
What  did  Hezekiah  do  in  this  distress  ?  When  Sennacherib 
sent  Rabshakeh  with  blasphemies  against  God  and  threatenings 
against  the  people,  Hezekiah  humbled  himself  greatly,  and 
spread  the  railing  letter  before  the  Lord  in  the  temple,  and 
prayed  earnestly  to  God  for  deliverance.  What  was  the  suc- 
cess of  Hezekiah's  prayer  ?  Isaiah  the  prophet  assured  him  of 
deliverance  :  and  the  angel  of  the  Lord  slew  in  the  camp  of  the 
Assyrians  one  hundred  and  fourscore  and  five  thousand  men  at 
once.  Wherein  did  Hezekiah  misbehave  himself  after  he  had 
received  all  this  mercy  ?  In  the  vanity  and  pride  of  his  heart, 
he  showed  the  messengers  of  the  king  of  Babylon  all  his 
treasures.  How  was  Hezekiah's  pride  punished  ?  God  told 
him  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  that  all  these  treasures  should  be 
carried  into  Babylon  :  but  because  Hezekiah  humbled  himself, 
God  deferred  the  execution  of  it  till  after  his  death.  What 
was  the  character  and  the  government  of  his  son  Manasseh  ? 
He  forsook  the  good  ways  of  his  father  Hezekiah  ;  he  brought 
in  idolatry  of  many  kinds  ;  he  worshipped  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  ;  he  made  his  son  pass  through  the  fire,  he  used  enchant- 
ments, and  shed  much  innocent  blood.  How  were  his  trans- 
gressions punished  ?  The  captains  of  the  host  of  Assyria  came 
up  against  Manasseh,  took  him  among  the  thorns,  bound  him 
■^th  fetters,  and  carried  him  to  Babylon.  How  did  Manasseh 
behave  in  his  affliction  ?  He  humbled  himself  greatly  before 
God  in  prayer,  whereupon  God  restored  him  to  his  kingdom, 
where  he  wrought  a  great  reformation.  What  is  written  con- 
cerning Amon  the  son  of  Manasseh  ?  Am  on  restored  the  idola- 
try which  Manasseh  had  once  set  up,  but  he  never  repented  or 
returned  to  God  as  his  father  had  done,  arid  he  was  slain  by 
his  own  servants.  What  is  worthy  of  notice  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah  the  son  of  Amon  ?  At  eight  years  old  he  began  his 
reign ;  at  sixteen  he  sought  after  God ;  and  at  twenty  he  de- 
stroyed the  altar  and  idols  which  his  father  Amon,  the  son  of 
Manasseh,  had  set  up.  How  did  he  carry  on  this  work  of 
reformation  ?  He  repaired  the  temple,  and  restored  the  wor- 
ship of  God  ;  and  finding  a  book  of  the  law  of  the  Lord  •  by 
Mosefj,  he  rent  his  clothes,  and  mourned  to  think  how  httle  this 
law  had  been  observed.  What  further  use  did  he  make  of  tliis 
book  ?     He  read  the  words  of  it  in  the  ears  of  all  the  elders  of 


A  SHORT  VIEW  OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY.  37 

Judah,  and  the  people,  the  priests,  and  the  prophets,  and  made 
a  covenant  with  the  people  of  Judah  to  perform  what  was  writ- 
ten in  this  book.  How  came  Josiah  by  his  death  ?  He  went 
out  to  fight  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  without  the  direction  of 
God,  and  he  was  slain,  and  great  lamentation  was  made  for  him. 
Who  succeeded  Josiah  ?  Eliakim,  sometimes  also  called  Je- 
hoiakim.  Who  succeeded  Jehoiakim  ?  His  son  Jehoiachin. 
Was  there  any  king  in  Judah  after  Jehoiachin  ?  Yes  ;  the  last 
king  was  Zedekiah.  What  fell  out  in  the  days  of  Zedekiah  ? 
He  rebelled  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  to  whom  he  had  sworn 
subjection  by  the  name  of  the  true  God,  whereupon  Nebuchad- 
nezzar came  up  and  took  the  city  of  Jerusalem  again,  after  a 
siege  of  two  years.  What  became  of  the  city  and  temple  at 
this  time  ?  The  king  of  Babylon  burnt  the  temple  of  the  Lord, 
the  palace  of  the  kings,  and  all  the  houses  of  Jerusalem :  he 
broke  down  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  carried  away  the  rest  of 
the  people  captive ;  together  with  all  the  vessels  of  gold,  and 
silver,  and  brass,  great  and  small,  that  belonged  to  the  temple. 
Was  there  any  ruler  of  the  scattered  people  that  remained  in 
the  land  of  Israel  ?  Gedaliah  was  made  governor  by  the  king 
of  Babylon,  but  he  was  slain  in  a  little  time  by  a  faction 
under  Ishmael,  one  of  the  seed-royal ;  and  there  was  nothing 
but  confusion  and  disorder  in  the  land.  What  became  of  the 
people  afterwards  ?  Johanan,  the  son  of  Kareah,  one  of  the 
captains  under  Gedaliah,  routed  Ishmael  and  drove  him  out  of 
the  land  ;  yet  being  afraid  of  the  anger  of  the  king  of  Babylon, 
and  his  resentment  of  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  his  governor,  he 
was  tempted  to  fly  into  Egypt,  and  to  carry  most  of  the  people 
thither  with  him,  where  they  were  dispersed  into  several  cities. 
Did  the  Jews  behave  themselves  better  in  Egypt  after  all  their 
afflictions  and  distress  ?  They  practised  idolatry  in  Egypt  with 
insolence,  in  opposition  to  the  reproofs  of  Jeremiah  the  prophet, 
who  foretold  the  return  of  only  a  small  portion  of  them  to  the 
land  of  Judah,  though  he  predicted  the  return  of  their  brethren 
from  their  captivity  in  Babylon. 

How  long  did  the  nation  of  the  Jews  continue  in  their  cap- 
tivity, and  their  land  lie  desolate  ?  Though  the  land  lay  not  ut- 
terly destitute  till  the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  the  days 
of  Zedekiah,  which  was  between  fifty  and  sixty  years  before 
their  first  release  ;  yet,  from  their  first  captivity  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  former  reigns,  their  land  was  in  some  measure  desolate 
seventy  years,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah.  Who 
released  them  from  their  captivity  in  Babylon  ?  When  Babylon 
was  taken  by  Cyrus,  the  general  of  the  army  under  Darius  the 

4 


do  A  SHORT  VIEW   OF  SCRIPTURE  HISTORY 

king  of  the  Medes,  the  Assyrian  or  Babylonish  empire  was  fin- 
ished. After  Darius's  death,  Cyrus  became  king  of  Persia,  and 
he  not  only  gave  the  Jews  a  release,  but  gave  them  also  a 
commission  to  rebuild  the  temple,  and  restored  to  them  the  ves- 
sels of  gold  and  silver ;  and  this  he  did  by  the  hand  of  Shesh- 
bazzar,  a  prince  of  Judah.  Which  of  the  tribes  accepted  of  this 
commission,  and  returned  to  their  own  land?  Many  persons 
and  families  of  several  tribes  of  Israel  took  this  opportunity  of 
returning ;  yet  it  was  chiefly  those  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  with 
the  priests  and  several  of  the  Levites,  who  returned,  and  were 
now  all  united  under  the  name  of  Jews.  Who  were  the  first 
leaders  and  directors  ?  Zerubbabel,  a  prince  of  Judah,  of  the 
seed-royal,  whose  Chaldaic  or  Babylonish  name  was  Shesh- 
bazzar ;  he  was  their  prince  or  captain,  and  Jeshua  or  Joshua 
was  their  high-priest.  What  was  the  first  thing  they  did  after 
their  return  ?  They  made  a  large  contribution  towards  the  re- 
building of  the  temple  ;  they  gathered  themselves  together  to 
Jerusalem ;  they  set  up  the  altar  of  the  God  of  Israel,  and 
offered  sacrifices  upon  it.  In  what  manner  did  they  lay  the 
foundation  of  the  temple  ?  While  the  builders  laid  the  founda- 
tion, the  priests  and  the  Levites  sang  and  praised  the  Lord  with 
trumpets  and  other  instruments,  after  the  ordinance  of  David. 
What  remarkable  occurrences  attended  the  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  temple  ?  While  the  younger  part  of  the  people 
shouted  for  joy,  many  of  the  ancient  fathers  wept  with  a  loud 
voice,  when  they  remembered  how  much  more  glorious  the  first 
temple  had  been  than  the  second  was  likely  to  be.  What  was 
the  first  hinderance  they  found  in  the  building  of  the  temph  ? 
The  Samaritans  desired  to  join  with  them  in  their  building,  and 
because  the  Jews  forbade  them,  they  gave  them  continual  trou- 
ble in  the  days  of  Cyrus.  What  was  the  second  hinderance  they 
met  with  ?  When  Artaxerxes  I.  came  to  the  throne  of  Persia, 
these  people  wrote  an  accusation  against  the  Jews  that  the  city 
of  Jerusalem  had  been  rebellious  in  former  times :  whereupon 
Artaxerxes  caused  the  work  to  cease  till  the  second  year  of 
Darius.  Who  persuaded  the  Jews  to  go  on  with  their  work 
under  the  reign  of  this  Darius  ?  The  prophets  of  God  which 
were  with  them  encouraged  and  required  them  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord  to  go  on  with  the  work  of  the  temple  ;  for  several  of 
them  were  too  negligent,  and  God  punished  them  for  it  with 
scarcity  of  corn  and  wine.  When  was  the  temple  finished  ? 
Through  many  delays,  arising  partly  from  tlie  negligence  of  the 
Jews,  and  partly  from  the  opposition  of  their  enemies,  it  was 
twenty  years  in  building :  nor  was  it  finished  till  the  sixth  year 


A  SHORT   VIEW  OF  SCllIPTURE  HISTORY.  39 

of  the  reign  of  Darius,  at  which  time  they  dedicated  it  with  man}' 
sacrifices,  and  kept  the  passover  with  joy.  What  did  Ezra  do 
in  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  ?  He  proclaimed  a  day  of  fasting 
and  prayer,  to  seek  the  assistance  of  God ;  for  he  was  ashamed 
to  ask  the  king  for  soldiers  to  be  their  guard,  because  he  had 
told  the  king  of  the  power  and  the  mercy  of  their  God.  What 
did  Ezra  do  when  he  came  to  Jerusalem  ?  He  delivered  the 
orders  of  th'i  king  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  and  the 
gold  and  silver  to  those  who  had  the  care  of  the  building,  and 
so  promoted  the  work.  What  reformation  did  Ezra  work  among 
the  people  ?  When  he  was  informed  that  many  of  tlie  Jews 
h^id  mingled  themselves  in  marriages  with  the  heathen,  he,  to- 
gether with  the  more  religious  part  of  the  Jews,  humbled  them- 
selves before  God  for  all  their  former  iniquities,  in  an  excellent 
prayer,  and  brought  them  into  a  covenant  and  an  oath  to  put 
away  their  strange  wives.  Did  the  Jews  rebuild  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  ?  Yes,  for  the  Babylonian  army  had  broken  down 
the  walls  and  burnt  the  gates  of  it.  Whom  did  God  raise  up 
to  carry  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  ?  ISTehemiah  the  Jew,  who 
was  cup-bearer  to  Artaxerxes  the  king  of  Peisia.  How  was 
Nehemiah  engaged  herein  ?  When  he  heard  of  the  continuance 
of  the  desolation  made  by  the  enemies,  he  fasted  and  prayed  to 
God,  and  then  he  obtained  leave  of  Artaxerxes  the  king,  to  go 
up  to  Jerusalem,  and  rebuild  the  city  of  the  sepulchres  of  his 
fathers.  What  further  encouragement  did  Nehemiah  receive 
from  the  king  ?  He  received  an  order  for  the  governors  of  the 
provinces  to  assist  him,  and  to  give  timber  out  of  the  king's 
forest.  How  did  Nehemiah  begin  his  work  ?  He  rode  round 
the  city  by  night,  and  took  a  private  survey  of  the  ruins  thereof, 
and  appointed  a  particular  part  of  the  walls  and  gates  to  be  re- 
paired by  particular  persons  and  tlieir  companies.  What  oppo- 
sition did  the  Jews  meet  with  in  this  part  of  their  work  ?  San- 
ballat  the  Samaritan,  and  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  and  their 
accomplices,  at  first  laughed  the  Jews  to  scorn,  and  then 
conspired  to  fight  against  them  while  they  were  at  work.  How 
did  Nehemiah  prevent  the  mischief  they  designed  ?  He  en- 
couraged the  Jews  to  trust  in  their  God,  and  appointed  every 
man  that  labored  in  the  work  to  have  a  weapon  to  defend  him- 
self. What  reformation  did  Nehemiah  work  among  them  ? 
He  reproved  those  that  took  usury,  and  oppressed  their  breth- 
ren ;  and  he  set  himself  for  an  example,  who,  though  he  Avas 
governor  twelve  years,  took  no  salary,  iDut  maintained  himself 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  Jews  at  his  own  charge.  How  did 
they  keep  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ?    By  dwelhng  in  booths  made 


4C  A  SHORT  viu'.v  of  scripture  history. 

of  branches  of  trees  seven  days  together,  as  God  had  command- 
ed by  Moses,  and  they  read  and  explained  the  book  of  the  law 
every  day  of  the  seven.  How  were  the  people  disposed  of  in 
their  habitations  ?  The  rulers  dwelt  at  Jerusalem,  the  rest  of 
the  priests  and  people  cast  lots  to  bring  one  in  ten  to  dwell  at 
Jerusalem,  and  nine  parts  in  the  other  cities,  that  the  land  might 
be  peopled.  How  was  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  the  holy  city 
dedicated  ?  The  Levites  came  from  all  places  to  Jerusalem, 
and  joined  with  the  priests  and  the  rubers  in  two  large  com- 
panies, and  gave  thanks,  and  offered  sacrifices,  and  sang  the 
praises  of  God,  so  that  the  joy  of  Jerusalem  was  heard  afar  off. 
Had  Nehemiah  no  prophet  to  assist  him  in  this  difficult  work  ? 
It  is  supposed  that  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  prophets,  prophesied 
about  this  time,  for  he  doth  not  reprove  them  for  neglect  of 
building  as  Haggai  did,  nor  does  he  speak  of  the  finishing  of  the 
temple  as  Zechariah  did.  But  supposing  that  already  done,  he 
reproved  them  about  their  marriage  with  strangers,  and  of  several 
wives,  or  of  taking  concubines ;  their  robbing  God  of  their 
tithes  ;  their  polluting  the  altar  and  neglect  of  offering  God  the 
best ;  which  were  the  very  things  which  Nehemiah  corrected  in 
his  last  reformation. 

Thus  far  the  holy  scripture  has  delivered  down  to  us  the  history  of  the 
transactions  of  God  with  men,  and  particularly  with  his  own  people,  the 
nation  of  Israel,  in  a  long  and  continued  succession  of  events,  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  to  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  captivity  ol 
Babylon,  and  the  settling  of  the  church  and  stale  under  Nehemiah, 
whom  the  king  of  Persia  made  governor  over  the  land. 


QUESTIONS, 

JTROlf  THE  EARLIEST  TIME  TO  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  IMPE- 
RIAL POWER  IN  ROME,  COMPREHENDING  A  SKETCH  OF  GENERAl 
HISTORY. 

And  oft  conducted  by  Historic  Truth, 

We  tread  the  long  extent  of  backward  Time. 

Thomson's  Spring. 

Name  some  of  the  most  ancient  kingdoms.  CLaldea,  Baby- 
Ionia,  Assyria,  China  in  Asia,  and  Egypt  in  Africa.  Nimrod, 
the  grandson  of  Ham,  is  supposed  to  have  founded  the  first  of 
these,  B.  c.  2221,  as  well  as  the  fiimous  cities  of  Babylon  and 
Nineveh ;  his  kingdom  being  withm  the  fertile  plains  of  Chaldea, 


THE  EGYPTIANS  AND  PHCENICIANS.  41 

Cbalonitis,  and  Assyria,  was  of  small  extent  compared  with  the 
vast  empires  that  afterwards  arose  from  it,  but  included  several 
large  cities.  In  the  district  called  Babylonia  were  the  cities  of 
Babylon,  Barsita,  Idicarra,  and  Vologsia.  When  Ninus  con- 
quered Babylon  the  Chaldean  monarchy  was  united  to  the 
Assyrian.  For  what  were  the  Chaldeans  remarkable  ?  They 
were  the  first  people  who  worked  in  metals,  and  were  acquainted 
with  astronomy :  their  priesthood  practised  medicine,  interpreted 
dreams,  and  professed  magic  and  astrology.  What  is  the 
present  state  of  Chaldea  and  Babylon?  Those  once  fertile 
plains  are  now  sterile,  and  the  remains  of  the  famous  city  con- 
sists of  great  fragments  and  piles  of  brickwork,  that  serve  as 
quarries  for  the  construction  of  other  cities.  When  does  the 
authentic  history  of  the  Chinese  commence  ?  About  3000 
years  before  Christ.  The  reign  of  Fohi  commenced  b.  c.  220*7. 
It  describes  that  people  as  a  wandering  horde,  living  in  the 
forests  of  Shen-see,  at  the  foot  of  the  Tartar  mountains,  upon 
the  spoils  of  the  chase ;  one  of  their  chiefs,  Swee-gin-shjie,  dis- 
covered, accidentally,  the  production  of  fire  by  the  friction  of 
two  pieces  of  dry  wood,  and  taught  them  to  look  up  to  Tien, 
the  creating  and  destroying  power.  What  nation  introduced 
regular  government  ?  The  Egyptians,  in  the  time  of  Jacob ; 
they  first  gave  mankind  the  principles  of  civil  order,  and  to  them 
we  are  indebted  for  the  useful  and  elegant  arts.  To  whom  did 
the  Egyptians  communicate  their  discoveries  ?  To  the  Greeks ; 
the  Greeks  to  the  Romans,  from  whom  the  other  European 
nations  received  their  first  ideas  of  civilization  and  refinement. 
What  people  introduced  the  arts  of  commerce  ?  The  Egyptians ; 
they  also  were  first  acquainted  with  the  implements  of  hus- 
bandry. Who  improved  the  state  of  commerce  ?  The  Phoe  • 
nicians,  who  Hved  in  Palestine,  (the  Holy  Land,)  and  were,  even 
in  the  time  of  Abraham,  considered  as  a  powerful  nation.  What 
were  the  extent  and  character  of  their  country  ?  It  contained 
4,232  square  miles,  was  intersected  by  the  woody  ridges  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Libanus,  and,  although  possessing  many 
large  cities,  never  formed  a  single  state.  Its  most  ancient  city, 
Sidon,  now  Saida,  was  famous  for  its  manufacture  of  glass ;  and. 
Old  Tyre,  a  colony  from  Sidon,  for  its  purple  dye  :  a  later  Tyre 
was  built  upon  an  island,  which  Alexander,  when  he  besieged 
it,  converted  into  a  peninsula.  In  what  state  was  Europe  at  this 
early  period  ?  The  inhabitants  were  savage,  wild,  and  bar- 
barous ;  totally  uninstructed  and  uninformed,  having  little  or  no 
jitercourge  with  the  civilized  part  of  mankind.  What  king 
improved  the  civil  and  miUtary  estabhshments  of  the  Egyptians  ? 


42  THE  DEATH  OF  CODRUS. 

Sesostris :  he  succeeded  that  Amenophis  (or  Pharaoh)  who  was 
drowned  in  the  Red  Sea ;  and,  by  the  wisdom  of  liis  laws  and 
government,  his  kingdom  became  the  most  powerful  then 
known. 

What  part  of  Europe  was  first  civihzed  ?  Athens,  where 
Cecrops  landed  with  an  Egyptian  colony,  about  1550  b.  c, 
and  introduced  order  and  harmony  among  the  original  inhabit- 
ants. Who  was  Amphictyon?  'The  third  king  of  Athens; 
endowed  with  uncommon  genius  and  strength  of  mind ;  he 
lived  about  1496  years  before  Christ,  and  contrived  to  unite,  in 
one  common  system  of  poUtics,  the  states  of  Greece.  How  did 
he  effect  this  ?  By  engaging  twelve  of  the  Grecian  cities  to 
join  for  tlieir  mutual  advantage,  sending  each  two  deputies  to 
Thermopylce  twice  a  year,  wiio  debated  there,  and  were  called 
the  Amphictyonic  council.  What  was  the  end  effected  by  tliis 
council?  Its  determinations  answered  the  best  purposes,  as 
every  thing,  relative  to  the  general  interests  of  the  cities  repre- 
sented, was  there  discussed ;  by  these  means  the  Greeks  were 
able  to  preserve  their  liberty  and  independence  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Persian  empire.  What  other  employments  had  the  Am- 
phictyons  ?  They  took  care  of  the  treasures,  amassed  by  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  those  who  consulted  the  oracle,  in  the 
temple  of  Delphos.  Which  of  the  Grecian  cities  first  acquired 
superior  power  ?  Athens  ;  for  Theseus,  king  of  that  place, 
invited  strangers  to  reside  there,  instituted  new  religious  rites, 
and  promised  protection  and  friendship  to  such  as  should  prefer 
his  dominions  to  the  neighboring  states.  How  did  Theseus 
further  promote  his  country's  benefit  ?  He  divided  the  Athe- 
nians into  three  classes ;  nobility,  tradesmen,  and  husbandmen : 
the  two  latter,  from  the  encouragement  given  to  arts  and  agri- 
culture, had  great  weight  in  the  state,  and  soon  became  opulent 
and  considerable.  Erectheus,  an  Athenian  king,  the  first  of  the 
name,  raised  an  image  of  Minerva,  of  olive-wood,  in  Cecropia, 
and  instituted  festivals  called  Athenaea,  in  honor  of  the  goddess, 
to  be  celebrated  by  the  twelve  Attic  cities.  How  long  were 
the  Athenians  governed  by  kings  ?  Till  the  death  of  the 
self-devoted  Codrus,  in  the  year  b.  c.  10*70,  when  they  pro- 
claimed that  Jupiter  alone  should  be  king  of  Athens  ;  about  the 
same  time  the  Thcbans  established  a  republic ;  and  tlie  Jews 
weary  of  a  theocracy,  petitioned  to  be  governed  by  kings.  How 
did  the  Athenians  conduct  their  republic  ?  For  more  than  300 
years  their  supreme  magistrate  was  called  an  archon,  whose 
office  continued  for  life  ;  at  length,  thinking  the  power  of  these 
archons  too  great,  they  chose  nine  of  these  magistrates,  who 


THE  LAWS  OF  LYCURGUS.  43 

were  elected  annually:  Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus,  was  the  first 
archon.  Who  first  gave  the  Athenians  written  laws  ?  Draco, 
one  of  their  archons  ;  but  these  laws  were  afterwards  revised 
by  Solon.  What  did  Solon  for  his  country  ?  He  revived  the 
Areopagus,  (a  court  of  justice  instituted  by  Cecrops ;)  restored 
and  augmented  its  authority ;  and  its  reputation  was  so  exten- 
sive, that  even  the  Romans  referred  causes,  too  intricate  for  their 
own  decision,  to  the  determination  of  this  tribunal.  Who  were 
honored  with  a  place  in  this  court  of  justice  ?  In  the  time  of 
Cecrops,  such  citizens  as  were  eminently  famed  for  virtue  were 
constituted  judges  there  ;  but  Solon  ordained  that  none  should 
preside  in  the  Areopagus  who  had  not  passed  the  office  of 
archon. 

How  was  Sparta  then  governed  ?  By  two  kings,  who  reign- 
ed jointly ;  their  power  was  very  limited,  and  their  chief  use 
was  to  head  the  army  in  military  expeditions.  When  were  the 
Spartan  laws  new-modelled?  884  years  b.  c,  by  Lycurgus. 
What  was  remarkable  in  his  laws?  He  eff"ected  an  equal 
division  of  lands  among  the  Spartans,  dispensed  with  the  use  of 
gold  and  silver,  trained  the  youth  in  perfect  obedience  and 
military  discipline,  and  ordered  "  that  particular  respect  should 
be  paid  to  the  aged."  In  what  fight  were  the  Spartans  con- 
sidered ?  Entirely  as  a  warlike  nation ;  but  they  were  forbid- 
den to  attack  or  oppress  their  neighbors  without  provocation, 
and  v/ere  only  allowed  to  defend  themselves  against  the  inroads 
of  other  states.  What  was  the  great  defect  in  the  Spartan 
laws?  Lycurgus  directed  his  attention  to  form  a  nation  of 
soldiers,  wholly  neglecting  the  culture  of  the  mind :  thus  the 
sciences  were  banished,  and  the  Spartans,  owing  to  their  rough- 
ness and  austerity,  were  little  esteemed  by  their  more  polished 
neighbors.  Hoav  long  did  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  subsist  ? 
More  than  500  years.  How  were  the  Egyptians  then  govern- 
ed ?  By  a  succession  of  weak  kings,  till  the  monarchy  was 
quite  overthrown  by  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  (this  happened 
300  years  after  the  death  of  Lycurgus ;)  it  continued  annexed 
to  the  Persian  dominions  for  200  years  more,  when  Alexander 
made  it  part  of  the  Macedonian  empire.  How  did  the  Egyp- 
tians become  such  an  easy  prey  to  the  Persians  ?  They  had 
long  been  accustomed  to  a  polished  life ;  had  neglected  to  for- 
tify their  cities  sufficiently,  so  as  to  stop  the  progress  of  an 
enemy ;  their  manners  were  effeminate,  and  their  courage 
doubtful;  while  the  Persians,  just  emerging  from  barbarism, 
brave  and  warlike,  pushed  on  their  conquests  with  ardor  and 
rapidity. 


44  ROME  FOUNDED. 

What  reniarkaLle  events  befell  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  about 
this  period  ?  Nebuchadnezzar  had  overthrown  the  Jewish 
monarchy,  and  led  the  Jews  into  captivity.  Cyrus  the  Great, 
in  the  reign  of  Belshazzar,  grandson  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  besieged 
Babylon  with  a  powerful  army ;  the  city,  as  the  prophets  had 
foretold,  was  taken,  and  Belshazzar  killed  in  his  palace.  What 
happened  to  the  Grecian  states  upon  the  death  of  Cyrus  ?  The 
succeeding  Persian  monarchs  continued  the  war  with  the 
Greeks,  who,  in  many  hard-fought  battles,  had  opportunities 
for  the  exercise  of  those  virtues  which  the  freedom  of  their 
government  inspired.  Which  side  proved  victorious  ?  During 
the  reigns  of  Xerxes  and  Darius  the  contest  was  doubtful,  but 
the  Greeks  at  length  established  their  ascendency  over  the 
Persians.  Did  the  Greeks  improve  these  victories  ?  No ;  they 
had  many  divisions  among  themselves,  and  the  famous  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  weakened  both  their  virtue  and  military  force  ;  then 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  an  artful  and  enterprising  prince,  em- 
braced this  favorable  opportunity  for  enlarging  his  own  power, 
and,  by  bribery  and  promises,  gained  such  numbers  to  his  in- 
terest, that,  after  the  battle  of  Cheronea,  fought  against  him  by 
the  Greeks,  (as  the  last  eflfort  of  expiring  liberty,)  they  fell  entire- 
ly into  his  hands.  What  put  an  end  to  Philip's  ambitious 
schemes  ?  His  sudden  death ;  being  assassinated  by  Pausanias, 
whom  the  Persians  hired  to  commit  the  act.  Who  succeeded 
Philip  ?  His  son  Alexander,  whom  all  the  Grecian  states,  but 
Thebes  and  Athens,  had  chosen  general  of  their  united  forces, 
against  Darius ;  in  three  pitched  battles,  Granlcus,  Issus,  and 
Arbela,  he  conquered  the  Persian  monarch,  and  established  the 
Macedonian  empire  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Persian.  What  be- 
came of  Alexander  ?  He  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  in  the  midst 
of  a  rapid  career  of  glory,  at  Babylon,  in  the  year  b.  c.  323. 

What  progress  did  the  Greeks  make  in  the  arts  ?  From  the 
time  of  Cyrus  to  that  of  Alexander  they  were  gradually  im- 
proving: warriors,  statesmen,  philosophers,  poets,  historians, 
painters,  architects,  and  sculptors,  form  a  glorious  phalanx  in 
this  golden  age  of  Hterature  ;  and  the  history  of  the  Greeks  at 
this  period  is  equally  important  and  instructive. 

When  was  Rome  founded  ?  About  752  years  before  Christ, 
by  Romulus :  this  city,  the  fame  of  which  extended  through 
the  known  world,  was  at  first  only  a  mile  in  circumference,  and 
inhabited  by  those  who  sought  a  refuge  there  from  other  places, 
driven  by  their  necessities  or  their  crimes.  What  was  the  char- 
acter of  Romulus  ?  He  had  great  military  talents  ;  and,  as  he 
ftnd  his  followers  drew  their  subsistence  from  war,  his  plan  was, 


CARTHAGE  THE  RIVAL  OF  ROME.  45 

after  conquering  the  surrounding  states,  to  unite  them  to  Rome, 
adopting  their  improvements  in  arts  or  arms ;  thus,  from  every 
successful  war  liis  city  gained  fresh  strength,  power,  and  repu- 
tation. How  long  did  the  regal  power  subsist  in  Rome  ?  243 
years,  when  Tarquin  the  Proud  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  Ro- 
mans for  his  vices,  and  was  ignominiously  expelled.  How  were 
the  Romans  then  governed  ?  By  two  aunual  magistrates,  called 
consuls ;  their  power  being  of  such  short  duration,  each  en- 
deavored to  distinguish  himself  by  some  warlike  action,  and  the 
people  were  perpetually  led  out  against  some  new  enemy. 
What  powerful  state  contended  with  Rome  ?  Carthage ;  which 
had  been  settled  by  a  colony  of  Phoenicians  some  time  before 
the  building  of  Rome ;  and,  animated  by  the  spirit  of  its 
founders,  was  now  become  of  the  first  commercial  importance. 
When  did  the  famous  Punic  wars  begin?  264  years  before 
Christ :  after  long  and  frequent  struggles  Carthage  acknow- 
ledged the  superior  power  of  her  rival,  and  her  own  as  rapidly 
declined,     u.  c.  146  Carthage  was  razed  to  the  ground. 

How  were  the  principal  parts  of  the  known  world  occupied 
at  that  time  ?  While  Rome  and  Carthage  were  contending  for 
empire,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Asia  were  agitated  by  the  quarrels 
of  Alexander's  successors,  at  whose  death  the  extensive  domin- 
ions acquired  by  him  were  portioned  into  four  shares,  and  the 
proper  way  of  dividing  them  was  an  affair  occasioning  continual 
disputes.  From  the  sanguinary  conflicts  for  the  vacant  throne 
three  mighty  empires  arose  :  the  Egyptian,  founded  by  Ptolemy, 
from  whom  sprung  a  race  of  wise  and  learned  monarchs  ;  the 
Syrian,  estabhshed  by  Seleucus,  and  ruled  after  him  by  his 
descendants ;  and  the  Macedonian,  over  which  Antigonus  and 
his  posterity  reigned  until  the  Roman  intrusion.  How  did  the 
Romans  acquire  dominion  in  Greece  ?  The  ^tolians  (a  Gre- 
cian state)  called  them  over  to  assist  in  lessening  the  power 
of  Philip,  one  of  the  Macedonian  kings  ;  the  Romans  compelled 
him  to  resign  the  forts  he  had  erected,  and  the  Grecian  cities 
were  again  declared  free.  Were  the  Greeks  really  free  ?  No ; 
their  liberty  was  no  more  than  a  name ;  for  Philip  becoming 
tributary  to  the  Romans,  the  Grecian  states  dependent  upon 
him  were  so  too.  What  were  the  terms  of  this  kind  of  subjective 
alliance  ?  Rome  allowed  them  the  possession  of  their  owr  ter- 
ritories and  form  of  government ;  and,  under  the  specious  name 
of  allies,  they  were  obliged  to  comply  with  the  most  humihating 
conditions.  When  were  Macedonia  and  Greece  first  considerec? 
as  Roman  provinces  ?  Macedonia,  in  the  year  b.  c.  148 
Greece,  two  years  after,  by  the  name  of  Achaia. 


46  ATHENS,  SPARTA,  THEBES. 

What  monarch  yielded  last  to  the  Romans  ?  Mithiidatea, 
king  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor  ;  he  was  vanquished  successively? 
by  Sylla,  Lucullus,  and  Pompey ;  and  at  length  bereft  of  his 
dominions  and  his  life.  What  general  extended  the  Roman 
empire  ?  Caius  Marius  ;  he  vanquished  Jugurtha,  king  of 
Numidia,  in  Africa ;  released  Italy,  and  made  the  barbarians 
m  the  north  of  Europe  tributaiy  to  his  power.  Who  stretched 
the  Roman  power  to  its  utmost  hmits  ?  Julius  Ca3sar ;  he 
conquered  Egypt,  Asia,  Spain,  France,  and  invaded  Britain. 
What  befell  Caesar  ?  Owing  to  the  constant  di\-isions  of  the 
senate  and  people,  and  his  own  excessive  thirst  of  power,  he 
was  assassinated,  b.  c.  44,  by  those  who  called  themselves  the 
friends  of  the  people ;  and  Octavius  Caesar,  his  kinsman,  by  a 
train  of  fortunate  events,  obtained  the  diadem  which  Julius  had 
so  earnestly  desired  and  bled  for.  When  was  Octavius  Caesar 
declared  emperor  ?  In  the  year  of  the  republic  V24  :  the 
Carthaginian,  Persian,  Macedonian,  and  Grecian  glory,  was  now 
no  more  ;  all  nations  courted  his  alliance  ;  and,  conqueror  both 
by  sea  and  land,  he  extended  the  olive-branch,  and  closed  the 
temple  of  Janus,  for  the  third  time  since  its  erection  by  Numa 
''^ompilius. 

What  is  the  present  state  of  Egypt  ?  It  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  in  the  sixth  century,  and  afterwards  by  the  Turks, 
under  whose  government  it  now  remains  ;  the  Pacha,  Mehemet 
Ah,  rendered  himself  independent  of  the  Sultan,  and  the 
pachalic  is  now  hereditary  in  his  family.  He  pays  a  tribute  to 
the  Porte.  What  is  the  Porte  ?  The  government  of  the  Sultan 
of  Constantinople  is  called  the  "  Subhme  Porte."  What  is  the 
present  state  of  Athens?  After  the  Romans,  the  Venetians 
possessed  it ;  it  next  became  subject  to  the  Turks,  who  exer- 
cised so  much  cruelty  and  injustice  in  their  administration,  that 
the  inhabitants,  although  not  without  a  sanguinary  struggle, 
threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  in  1828,  and  set  up  a  provisional 
government,  which  was  finally  succeeded  by  a  monarchy  under 
Otho,  a  Bavarian  prince,  in  1832.  Sparta  has  also  experienced 
the  sam3  revolutions.  What  is  the  present  state  of  Macedon 
and  Thebes  ?  After  their  conquest  by  the  Romans  they  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  who  still  keep  possession  of  these 
territories.  Persia  became  first  a  prey  to  the  Saracens,  then  to 
the  Tartars.  What  revolutions  has  Rome  expeiienced  ?  From 
the  time  of  Augustus  Caisar  it  was  governed  by  a  succession 
of  emperors  till  the  year  of  our  Lord  410  ;  it  was  then  plun- 
dered by  the  Goths,  afterwards  by  the  Vandals;  at  length 
Charlemagrje,  king  of  France  and  emperor  of  Germany,  havint' 


ROME,  THE  PAPAL  RESIDENCE.  47 

given  this  city  to  the  Popes,  they  fixed  upon  it  as  the  seat  of 
their  power ;  but  it  has  been  entered  and  despoiled  by  the 
modern  French,  who  compelled  Pius  VI.  to  abandon  it :  it  was 
occupied  by  the  French  in  1*798,  who  caused  its  annexation  to 
the  Roman  republic ;  carried  pope  Pius  VI.  to  France,  where 
he  died,  and  obliterated  his  temporal  kingdom.  The  presence 
of  the  victorious  armies  of  Russia  and  Austria  in  Italy  favored 
the  election  of  Pius  VII.  to  the  papal  chair,  in  1800  ;  but  he 
resigned  a  great  part  of  his  temporal  authority  by  the  terms  of 
a  concordat  which  he  concluded  with  Napoleon,  first  consul  of 
France,  the  following  year,  and  the  remainder  was  added  to 
France  in  1808  ;  a  pension  of  2,000,000  francs  was  settled  on 
the  pope  for  the  maintenance  of  his  ecclesiastical  dignity  :  by  a 
decree  of  the  French  government  even  the  ecclesiastical  state 
of  the  papal  kingdom  was  terminated,  and  Pius  VII.  detained 
in  France  until  1814,  when  he  was  restored  to  his  ancient 
dignity  by  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  and  overthrow  of  the 
French  empire.  Rome  once  more  became  the  asylum  of  fallen 
princes,  of  proscribed  families,  and  the  seat  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
Gregory  XVI.,  who  succeeded  Pius  VII.,  has  not  abridged  the 
liberties  of  its  inhabitants.  The  present  pope,  who  succeeded 
to  the  popedom  in  1846,  is  still  more  liberal  in  his  views,  and 
has  increased  the  liberties  of  the  people. 


MIISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS 


GRECIAN  HISTOEY. 

Here  studious  let  me  sit, 

And  hold  high  converse  with  the  mighty  dead, 

Sages  of  ancient  time,  as  gods  revered  ; 

As  gods  beneficent,  who  blessed  mankind 

With  arts,  with  arms,  and  humanized  a  world. 

Thomson's  Wintbr. 

How  may  the  Grecian  history  be  divided  ?  Into  four  ajres. 
The  first  extends  1000  years,  from  the  building  of  Sicyon  to 
the  siege  of  Troy ;  the  second,  from  the  demofition  of  Troy  to 
the  reign  of  Darius,  (when  the  Greciar  and  Persian  history 
mingle,)  containing  six  hundred  years'    the  third,  from   the 


48  SIEGE  OF  TROY. 

beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius  to  the  death  of  Alexander, 
comprehending  the  most  important  part  of  Grecian  history ;  and 
the  fourth  begins  at  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  continues 
through  the  gradual  declension  of  the  Grecian  power  till  totally 
reduced  by  the  Romans.  .Which  were  the  most  considerable 
states  in  Greece  ?  Sicyon  was  the  most  ancient,  its  first  king, 
Agialeus,  being  contemporary  with  Noah  ;  Argos,  whose  king, 
Inachus,  was  contemporary  with  Abraham  and  Nimrod  ;  Atliens, 
founded  by  Cecrops,  an  Egyptian ;  Sparta,  or  Lacedemon,  so 
called  from  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Taygeta ;  Corinth,  Thebes, 
founded  by  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician,  1500  years  before  Christ ; 
Macedon,  which  subsisted  as  a  kingdom  from  its  foundation 
till  the  defeat  of  Perseus,  by  the  Romans,  162  years  before 
Christ,  a  space  of  626  years  ;  Thrace,  and  Epirus.  How  many 
dialects  were  used  among  the  Greeks  ?  Four ;  the  Attic,  Ionic, 
Doric,  and  ^olic.  Which  was  the  most  elegant  ?  The  Attic, 
spoken  in  Athens  and  its  vicinity ;  Thucydides,  Isocrates, 
Xenophon,  Plato,  Aristophanes,  and  Demosthenes,  wrote  in  it. 
Which  was  the  dialect  next  esteemed  ?  The  Ionic,  spoken 
chiefly  in  Asia  Minor  :  Herodotus  and  Hippocrates  wrote  in  it. 
What  nations  spoke  the  Doric  dialect  ?  The  Spartans,  Sicilians, 
Dorians,  Rhodians,  and  Cretans  :  Theocritus,  Pindar, '  and 
Archimedes,  wrote  in  it.  What  states  used  the  JEolic  dialect  ? 
First,  the  Beotians  ;  afterwards  the  Cohans,  who  lived  in  Asia 
Minor.  Why  was  the  Grecian  expedition  against  Troy  under- 
taken ?  To  recover  Helen,  the  beautiful  queen  of  Sparta,  who 
had  been  carried  off  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy. 
Who  commanded  this  expedition  ?  Agamemnon,  a  Grecian 
king,  brother  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta  :  Nestor  and  Ulysses, 
who  both  served  in  his  army,  are  said  to  have  assisted  him  by 
their  wise  counsels :  Achilles,  Ajax,  and  Diomede,  are  repre- 
sented as  the  bravest  of  his  generals.  Troy,  after  a  siege  of 
ten  years,  was  taken  by  the  Greeks.  What  was  the  Areopagus  ? 
The  place  where  the  Areopagites,  or  Athenian  judges,  assem- 
bled to  debate  in  :  it  was  for  many  years  after  its  first  institution 
famed  for  the  justice  of  its  decrees  :  Cecrops,  kiog  of  Athens, 
instituted  this  court ;  he  also  regulated  marriage  ceremonies 
among  the  Greeks,  making  them  binding  for  life.  Who  was 
the  first  king  of  Thebes  ?  Cadmus,  its  founder  :  Thebes  after- 
wards became  a  republic,  and  the  city  was  at  length  dismantled 
by  the  Romans.  What  was  meant  by  the  term  Beotarch  ? 
All  magistrates  and  generals,  who  had  supreme  command  in 
Thebes,  were  called  Beotarchs,  or  governors  of  Bcotia.  For 
what  were  the  Beotians  noted  ?  For  their  heaviness  and  stupid 


GRECIAN  GAMES.  49 

ity :  Plutarch,  Epaminondas,  and  Pindar,  are  however  great 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  Who  was  Lycurgus  ?  The  Spartan 
lawgiver :  to  his  exertions  and  useful  decrees  the  Spartans  were 
indebted  for  their  discipline,  and  much  of  their  valor.  What 
effects  did  his  laws  produce  ?  The  Spartans  became  brave, 
active,  and  noble-minded ;  and  were  inspired  with  a  peculiar 
readiness  to  defend  their  lives  and  liberties.  What  great  exam- 
ple did  Lycurgus  give  of  patience  and  ready  forgiveness  of 
mjurics  ?  That  of  pardoning  Alcander,  a  Spartan  youth,  who 
in  a  tuLiult  struck  out  one  of  his  eyes :  Lycurgus  even  took 
hin  into  nis  house,  and  treated  him  with  the  greatest  kindness. 
V/here  did  iron  pass  as  current  coin  ?  In  Sparta  :  Lycurgus 
established  this  regulation  to  check  any  improper  desire  which 
the  Lacedemonians  might  show  for  riches.  Who  were  the 
Helots  ?  Lacedemonian  slaves,  who  tilled  the  ground  and  did 
all  servile  drudgery :  the  severe  treatment  of  their  masters 
frequently  urged  them  to  revolt ;  and  their  lives  were  then  at 
the  disposal  of  those  whom  they  served.  The  Spartans,  to 
show  their  children  the  enormity  of  drunkenness,  used  to  expose 
their  slaves  to  them  in  that  condition.  What  were  the  Gym- 
nasia ?  Academies,  in  which  the  Athenians  were  taught  the 
use  of  arms,  and  all  manly  exercises.  Which  was  the  most 
polished  city  in  Greece  ?  Athens.  What  was  the  character 
of  the  Athenians  ?  Glory,  liberty,  and  interest  were  their  dar- 
ling passions ;  but  their  liberty  frequently  degenerated  into 
licentiousness :  they  were  capricious  and  ambitious ;  excelled  in 
the  art  of  navigation ;  and  were  the  general  patrons  of  the 
liberal  arts.  What  was  the  Neomenia  ?  A  feast  solemnized  in 
honor  of  the  new  mo6n,  among  the  Hebrews,  Egyptians,  Per- 
sians, Greeks,  Romans,  and  Gauls.  What  was  the  lo  Pean  ? 
A  hymn  of  triumph,  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo.  Who  was 
Homer  ?  The  earliest  and  best  Grecian  poet ;  he  wrote  the 
Iliad,  which  gives  an  account  of  the  last  year's  siege  of  Troy  ; 
and  the  Odyssey,  which  relates  the  adventures  of  Ulysses. 
What  were  the  Olympic  games*  ?  They  are  said  to  have  been 
instituted  by  Hercules,  among  the  Greeks,  in  honor  of  Jupiter^ 
upon  the  plains  of  Elis,  now  called  Antilala,  near  the  city  of 
Olympia ;  they  were  revived  by  Iphitus,  of  Elis,  before  Christ 
884  years,  and  by  Choraebus,  776,  from  which  date  the  Olym- 
piads are  reckoned ;  they  consisted  of  boxing,  running,  chariot- 
races,  wrestling,  and  quoiting,  and  were  celebrated  at  the  com- 
mencement of  every  fifth  year.  At  first,  no  women  were  per- 
mitted to  be  present,  but  this  law  was  repeajeci.  What  were 
the  Isthmian  games  ?     They  were  cele|3rated  every  third  (sonie 

5        "     ' 


50  GRECIAN  HISTPRT. 

say  every  fourth)  year,  in  honor  of  Paloemon,  or,  as  othei-s  say, 
of  Neptune,  by  the  Greeks,  upon  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
What  were  the  Pythian  and  Nemaean  games  ?  The  Pythian 
were  celebrated  in  the  Crissean  fields,  at  first  every  nine  years, 
in  honor  of  Apollo,  after  he  had  slain  the  serpent  Python  ;  but 
afterwards,  every  five  years,  by  command  of  the  assembly  of 
Amphictyons ;  and  the  Nemsean  derived  their  name  from  Nema3, 
a  small  town  of  Argolis,  in  Peloponnesus ;  they  were  probably 
instituted  by  Adrastus,  in  honor  of  Hercules,  who  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  the  Hon  of  the  Nemaean  forest,  and  were  solemnized 
every  two  years.  What  were  originally  the  rewards  of  the 
victors  in  all  these  games  ?  A  simple  ^vreath.  In  the  Olympic 
games,  which  were  accounted  the  most  honorable,  because  sa- 
cred to  Jupiter,  and  instituted  by  the  first  of  their  heroes,  this 
wreath  was  composed  of  wild  olive ;  in  the  Pythian,  of  laurel ; 
and  in  the  Isthmian  and  Nemaean  games,  of  parsley  ;  honor,  not 
interest,  being  the  best  reward  of  great  exertions.  What  in- 
fluenced the  Greeks  to  keep  up  the  commemoration  of  these 
games  ?  As  each  of  them  was  dedicated  to  the  memory  of 
some  god,  or  hero,  they  were  considered  both  in  a  rehgious  and 
political  light ;  and  these  frequent  assemblies  of  the  Grecian 
states  united  them  more  closely,  and  strengthened  their  mutual 
interests.  Who  was  Thales?  An  ancient  geographer,  and 
founder  of  the  Ionic  sect  of  philosophers,  so  named  from  Ionia, 
where  he  was  born ;  they  held  many  singular  opinions,  one  of 
which  was,  that  water  was  the  principle  of  being,  and  that  God 
formed  all  things  by  water :  Thales  fixed  the  term  and  duration 
of  the  solar  year  among  the  Grecians.  Who  was  Draco  ?  The 
first  rigid  legislator  of  Athens.  Who  was  Solon  ?  One  of  the 
seven  sages  of  Greece  ;  the  reformer  of  Draco's  code :  his  laws 
were  held  in  high  estimation.  Name  the  Grecian  sages. 
Thales,  Solon,  Chile,  (a  Lacedemonian,)  Pittacus,  Bias,  Cleobu- 
lus,  Periander :  Anacharsis  (the  Scythian)  has  also  been  classed 
by  some  among  the  sages,  and  he  appears  to  merit  the  distinc- 
tion. Who  was  Pythagoras  ?  A  native  of  Samos,  and  a  hea- 
then philosopher ;  he  taught  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
was  the  founder  of  the  Pythagorean  sect.  Who  was  Pisistratus  ? 
An  aspiring  Athenian,  who  usurped  the  government  of  Athens, 
during  the  absence  of  Solon.  Who  built  and  destroyed  the 
famous  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus  ?  Ctesiphon,  the  cele- 
brated architect,  built,  and  Erostratus  burnt  it.  When  was 
the  battle  of  Marathon?  490  years  before  Christ,  between  the 
Persians  and  Athenians;  the  Greeks  gained  a  signal  victory. 
This  was  the  first  great  battle  in  which  the  Greeks  were  evei 


OSTRACISM.  51 

engaged:  they  were  familiar  with  civil  contests,  often  termi- 
nated by  an  easy  accommodation  ;  this  was  with  an  array  of 
120,000  men,  and  with  the  greatest  monarch  in  the  world. 
Why  did  the  Persians  invade  the  Grecian  states  ?  The  Atheni- 
ans having,  500  years  before  Christ,  taken  and  burnt  the  city 
of  Sardis,  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  led  his  subjects  on  to  revenge 
the  affront.  How  did  the  Athenians  honor  Miltiades,  who 
commanded  their  forces  at  Marathon  ?  Polygnotus,  a  famous 
painter,  some  time  after  the  battle,  presented  the  Athenian  state 
with  a  picture  representing  this  celebrated  action;  the  most 
conspicuous  figure  was  Miltiades,  at  the  head  of  the  ten  com- 
manders, exhorting  them  to  victory  or  death  :  this  picture  was 
preserved  for  many  ages,  and  hung  in  the  porch  where  the 
Stoic  philosophers  assembled.  Was  this  the  only  recompense 
awarded  Miltiades  ?  Yes  :  in  those  times  glorious  actions  ob- 
tained no  higher  reward  than  the  fame  attending  them.  Did 
the  Athenians  retain  their  sense  of  gratitude  to  Miltiades  ?  No : 
this  fickle  people  threw  him  into  prison,  upon  a  false  accusation 
of  treachery  to  his  country,  and  he  was  condemned  to  lose  his 
life  in  the  most  ignominious  manner,  but  this  sentence  was 
mitigated  to  paying  a  fine  of  50,000  crowns :  not  being  able  to 
pay  this,  he  was  never  liberated  from  prison,  but  died  there  of 
the  wounds  he  received  in  his  country's  service.  How  did  his 
son  Cimon  signalize  his  filial  piety  on  this  occasion  ?  By  raising 
the  money  among  his  friends  and  relations,  and  thus  purchasing 
permission  to  inter  his  father's  body:  Cimon  afterwards  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Eurymedon.  What  marks  of 
esteem  did  Polygnotus  receive  from  Greece  ?  Having  painted 
many  pictures  at  Delphos,  and  presented  the  Athenians  with 
some  excellent  ones  representing  the  Trojan  war,  he  was  hon- 
ored with  the  solemn  thanks  of  all  Greece,  conveyed  to  him  by 
the  Amphictyonic  council ;  apartments  free  of  expense  were 
destined  him  in  all  the  Grecian  cities  ;  and  he  was  presented 
with  crowns  of  gold.  What  was  the  Ostracism  ?  A  law  intro- 
duced into  Athens  by  Clisthenes,  one  of  its  chief  magistrates ; 
its  original  intention  was  to  prevent  the  excesses  of  ambition,  by 
banishing,  for  the  space  of  ten  years,  those  citizens  whose  dis- 
tinguished talents  led  them  to  wish  for  pre-eminence  over  their 
countrymen  :  the  sentence  of  the  law  ran  thus,  "  If  any  one 
aim  at  obtaining  superiority  over  his  fellow -citizens,  let  him  go, 
and  excel  elsewhere."  Why  was  this  law  termed  the  ostracism  ? 
From  the  custom  which  prevailed  of  writing  the  name  of  the 
person  they  wished  to  exile  upon  an  oyster-shell ;  and  he  whose 
name  was  most  frequently  inscribed  upon  these  shells,  was 


52  GRECIAN  HEROES. 

adjudged  to  suffer  this  punishment ;  but,  as  many  of  the  best 
citizens  were  exiled  by  this  law,  its  impohcy  and  bad  tendency 
were  at  last  perceived,  and  it  was  repealed.  What  was  the 
petahsm  ?  A  sentence  of  much  the  same  nature  as  the  ostra- 
cism ;  it  took  its  name  from  the  decree  being  written  upon  an 
olive  leaf ;  was  in  force  among  the  Sicihans ;  and  this  banish- 
ment lasted  twelve  years.  Where  ran  the  river  Eurotas? 
Through  Peloponnesus  and  the  Lacedemonian  states  ;  it  washed 
the  walls  of  Sparta,  whose  inhabitants,  from  frequently  plunging 
into  its  waves,  acquired  much  of  their  strength  and  vigor. 
What  were  the  peculiarities  of  Spartan  conversation  ?  Brevity 
and  conciseness :  a  laconic  answer  is  a  proverb.  What  ancient 
states  had  their  meals  in  public  ?  The  Spartans  and  the  Cre- 
tans. Which  of  the  Spartan  kings  made  the  bravest  defence 
against  the  enemies  of  his  country  ?  Leonidas,  at  the  straits  of 
Thermopylae ;  he,  with  300  Spartans,  engaged  the  Persians, 
under  the  conduct  of  Xerxes,  with  100,000  men :  Leonidas  and 
his  brave  fellow-soldiers  were  all  killed,  except  one  man,  who 
jfled  back  to  Sparta,  where  he  was  treated  with  deserved  con- 
tempt, till  he  made  amends  for  his  cowardice  at  the  battle  of 
Platea.  What  were  the  words  on  the  monument  erected  to  the 
memory  of  Leonidas  and  his  brave  companions  ?  "  Go,  passen- 
ger, and  tell  at  Sparta,  that  we  died  here,  in  obedience  to  her 
sacred  laws."  Between  whom  was  the  battle  of  Artemisium  ? 
This  naval  engagement  was  between  the  Persians  and  the  Greeks, 
on  the  very  day  that  the  Spartans  and  Persians  were  engaged 
at  the  straits  of  Thermopylae  ;  the  success  was  doubtful.  What 
was  Athos  ?  A  famous  peninsular  mountain  in  Macedonia ; 
Xerxes,  in  his  expedition  against  the  Grecian  states,  ordered  a 
passage  to  be  cut  through  it.  Which  of  the  Athenians  have 
best  contributed  to  their  country's  glory  ?  Theseus,  Miltiades, 
Cimon,  Themistocles.,  Aristides,  and  Pericles:  Aristides  was 
famed  particularly  for  his  justice.  What  testimony  did  Plato 
give  to  his  merit  ?  This  :  "  Themistocles,  Cimon,  and  Pericles," 
said  Plato,  "  have  enriched  Athens  with  statues,  edifices,  and 
pubhc  ornaments,  but  Aristides  with  virtue."  Where  did 
Themistocles  acquire  the  greatest  honors  ?  At  Salamis :  this 
was  the  most  signal  victory  gained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Per- 
sians. What  was  the  prevailing  custom  among  the  Athenians 
after  a  battle  ?  The  commanders  declared  who  had  distinguish- 
ed themselves  most,  and  best  deserved  the  prize  of  victory,  (a 
laurel  crown,)  by  writing  their  names  upon  a  slip  of  paper : 
after  the  battle  of  Salamis,  each  general  adjudged  the  first  priz< 
k)  himself,  the  second  to  Themistocles,  thus  tacitly  givin^f  him  » 


TROPHIES  OF  VICTORY.  53 

decided  preference  to  all.  What  honors  did  Themistocles  re- 
ceive ?  The  prize  of  wisdom  was  decreed  him ;  the  Spartans 
presented  to  him  the  best  chariot  in  their  city,  and  commanded 
300  of  their  young  men  to  attend  him  to  the  frontiers  of  their 
state;  when  he  appeared  at  the  Olympic  games,  the  whole 
assembly  rose  in  compliment  to  him ;  all  eyes  were  directed  to 
Themistocles,  and  this  involuntary  homage  from  a  countless 
multitude  must  have  been  infinitely  more  jflattering  to  a  great 
mind  than  the  most  eloquent  orations  in  his  favor.  What 
privileges  were  granted,  in  the  last  ages  of  the  Athenian  re- 
public, to  those  who  had  deserved  well  of  their  country  ? 
They  were  made  free  of  the  city,  and  exempted  from  giving  public 
feasts  and  shows,  which  often  amounted  to  great  sums  :  these 
immunities  in  some  cases  were  extended  to  their  posterity ;  and 
they  were  frequently  honored  by  the  erection  of  statues  to 
their  memory.  What  funeral  ceremonies  were  observed  by 
the  Athenians  ?  The  bones  of  those  citizens  who  had  fallen  in 
battle,  after  being  strewed  with  perfumes  and  flowers,  were  ex- 
posed three  days  in  an  open  tent ;  they  were  then  enclosed  in 
coffins,  and  carried  round  the  city.  Where  were  these  bones 
finally  laid  ?  In  a  pubhc  monument  called  the  Ceramicus : 
here  were  deposited  in  all  ages  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle, 
except  the  warriors  of  Marathon,  who,  to  immortalize  their  un- 
common valor,  were  buried  there.  What  were  the  trophies  so 
frequently  mentioned  in  ancient  history  ?  They  were,  among 
the  Greeks,  wooden  monuments,  erected  in  the  place  where 
some  signal  victory  had  been  obtained,  and  either  were  adorned 
with  real  arms,  and  colors  taken  from  the  enemy,  or  had  war- 
like instruments  carved  upon  them  :  the  block  of  white  marble 
which  the  Persians  brought  into  the  field,  to  erect  as  a  trophy 
should  they  prove  victorious  at  Marathon,  was  converted  by 
Phidias  into  a  Nemesis,  or  goddess  of  revenge.  Why  did  the 
Greeks  choose  wood  for  their  trophies  ?  From  this  noble  mo- 
tive ;  they  were  unwilling  to  eternize  the  memory  of  feuds  and 
state  quarrels,  and  therefore  preferred  wood  to  a  more  durable 
substance,  that  as  national  animosities  in  time  decayed,  the  re- 
membrance of  them  might  do  so  too.     -ff 

How  long  did  the  first  war  between  the  Persians  and  Greeks 
continue  ?  Fifty-one  years.  Who  was  Pericles  ?  A  celebrated 
Athenian  general  and  orator.  How  did  Pericles  show  his  public 
spirit  in  Athens  ?  By  improving  and  beautifying  the  city  con- 
siderably, under  the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Phidias :  Pericles, 
hearing  that  the  Athenians  murmured  at  this  disposal  of  the 
public  money,  ofiered  himself  to  defray  all  necessary  expenses, 

6* 


64  THE  THIRTY  TYRANTS. 

pro\ided  his  name  were  recorded  upon  the  public  edifices. 
Did  the  Athenians  suffer  this?  No:  they  felt  the  intended  re- 
buke, and  afterwards  allowed  him  whatever  suras  he  thought 
proper.  What  were  the  last  words  of  Pericles ?  "I  am  sur- 
prised," said  he,  speaking  to  the  friends  who  surrounded  his  bed, 
and  were  relating  his  great  exploits  to  each  n^her,  *'  that  you 
should  forget  the  most  meritorious  circumstance  of  my  hfe : 
I  never  caused  any  one  citizen  to  mourn  on  my  account."  It 
cannot,  however,  be  forgotten,  that  it  was  he  who  procured 
the  revival  of  an  obsolete  law,  declaring  no  person  a  citizen  of 
Athens  whose  parents,  both  father  and  mother,  had  not  been 
Athenian  citizens  also ;  in  consequence  of  which,  5,000  individuals, 
who  had  before  been  free,  were  sold  as  slaves.  Which  were 
the  chief  works  of  Phidias  ?  A  Minerva,  erected  in  the  city 
of  Athens,  and  a  Jupiter  Olympius,  sixty  feet  high,  made  of 
gold  and  ivory :  Phidias,  exasperated  at  his  countrpnen's  in- 
gratitude to  him,  presented  his  Jupiter  to  the  Eleans,  a  neigh- 
boring nation.  What  was  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  its  cause  ? 
A  contest  carried  on  between  the  Spartans  and  Peloponnesian 
states  (the  Argives  and  Achaeans  excepted)  on  one  side,  and 
the  Athenians  and  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  on  the  other.  It  was 
excited  by  the  conduct  of  the  Athenians  in  aiding  the  Corcyre- 
ans  against  the  Corinthians,  broke  out  431  years  before  Christ, 
lasted  for  twenty-seven  years,  and  ended  in  the  most  complete 
overthrow  of  the  Athenian  power :  the  history  of  this  war  is 
related  by  Thucydides  and  Xenophon.  What  particular  calamity 
befell  the  Athenians  at  this  period  ?  A  terrible  plague  raged 
in  Athens,  430  years  before  Christ :  the  famous  physician, 
Hippocrates,  then  distinguished  himself  by  his  care  of  the  sick, 
and  greatly  increased  his  reputation.  What  was  the  Odeon  ? 
A  musical  theatre,  erected  in  Athens,  by  command  of  Pericles  : 
it  was  ornamented  by  the  celebrated  Phidias  :  the  Greeks  con- 
sidered music  as  one  of  the  essentials  in  the  education  of  their 
children.  How  was  the  style  of  the  historian  Herodotus  dis- 
tinguished? By  its  elegance  and  simplicity.  What  honors 
did  Herodotus  receive  from  the  Greeks?  When  he  read  his 
history  at  the  Olympic  games,  the  Greeks,  after  bestowing  upon 
this  celebrated  work  unbounded  applause,  gave  to  each  separate 
book  the  name  of  one  of  tlie  nine  muses.  Who  was  Lysander  ? 
A  Lacedemonian  general,  and  the  conqueror  of  Athens  :  towards 
the  conclusion  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  he  established  thirty 
magistrates,  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  thirty  tyrants : 
wealth  in  their  eyes  was  the  greatest  crime  ;  thoy  seized 
wherever  they  found  i :,  and  are  said  to  have  put  more  to  death 


XENOPHON AGESILAUS.  55 

in  eight  months  than  the  enemies  of  Athens  had  done  during 
the  continuance  of  a  long  war.  Who  was  Thrasybulus  ?  A 
noble  Athenian,  who  after  attacking  and  defeating  the  thirty 
tyrants  who  then  usurped  the  government  of  Athens,  and  re- 
storing freedom,  passed  an  act  of  amnesty,  (or  general  pardon,) 
by  which  the  citizens  engaged,  upon  oath,  to  bury  all  past  trans- 
actions in  oblivion.  Which  of  the  Grecian  philosophers  was 
most  famed  for  his  virtues  and  liberal  opinions  ?  Socrates : 
history  records  an  action  of  his,  truly  heroic.  When  unjustly 
sentenced  to  death  by  the  Athenians,  he  refused  to  escape  from 
prison,  although  an  opportunity  presented  itself,  since  it  was 
contrary  to  the  standing  laws  of  his  country.  ^Vhy  was  the 
Isle  of  Delos  famed  ?  The  common  treasures  of  Greece  were 
there  deposited,  and  the  Athenians  were  accustomed  to  send  a 
ship,  every  year,  to  offer  sacrifices  at  Delos  :  the  laws  forbade 
any  person  being  put  to  death  in  Athens,  from  the  time  of  this 
ship's  departure  till  its  return.  What  great  man  was  once 
sentenced  to  die  at  Athens,  before  these  sacrifices  left  the  city  ? 
Socrates:  the  execution  of  his  sentence  was  suspended  for 
thirty  days,  after  Avhich  he  was  compelled  to  drink  hemlock. 
Were  the  Athenians  ever  sensible  of  his  merit  ?  Yes :  the 
Delphic  oracle  had  before  declared  him  the  wisest  of  mankind ; 
and,  after  his  decease,  great  honors  were  paid  him ;  a  statue 
(the  work  of  Lysippus)  Avas  erected  to  his  memory ;  and,  at 
length,  Socrates  was  worshipped  as  a  demigod.  Who  was 
Xenophon  ?  A  famous  historian,  philosopher,  and  warrior,  who 
commanded  the  10,000  Greeks,  in  their  celebrated  retreat  to 
their  own  country  from  Asia,  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  What 
was  the  favorite  diversion  of  the  Athenians  ?  Hunting  :  it  was 
so  highly  esteemed  at  Athens,  that  Xenophon  wrote  a  treatise 
purposely  to  display  the  advantages  resulting  from  an  exercise 
which  enatles  its  followers  to  suffer  hunger,  cold,  heat,  and 
thirst,  with  equal  indifference.  Who  was  Agesilaus  ?  A  valiant 
king  of  Sparta,  who  defeated  the  Persian  army  near  Sardis,  and 
the  Thebans  in  the  plains  of  Cunaxa ;  he  was  assassinated  on 
the  coast  of  Lydia,  in  the  eighty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  return- 
ing from  the  conquest  of  Egypt.  Who  were  the  Ephori  ? 
Spartan  magistrates  :  nine  were  elected,  but  five  had  the  power 
of  acting  collectively ;  all,  even  kings,  were  compelled  to  appear 
before  them  upon  any  cliarge  of  mal-administration  ;  they  regu- 
lated religious  rites,  made  peace  and  war,  and  had  the  custody 
of  all  the  public  treasures.  What  celebrated  action  is  recorded 
of  these  Ephori  ?  They  were  such  strict  disciplinarians,  that 
they  fined  one  of  their  valiant  soldiers  for  gaining  a  victory  un- 


66  THE  SACRED  WAR. 

armed ;  the  youth  was  bathing,  when  he  heard  the  sound  oi 
the  trumpet,  and  rushed  from  the  bath  to  head  the  troops  imder 
his  command :  after  gaining  the  victory,  the  magistrates  decreed 
him  a  crown  of  laurel  for  the  courage  he  had  shown,  but  fined 
him  for  not  staying  to  put  on  his  armor.  What  superstitious 
rites  had  the  Athenians  ?  Feasts  celebrated  in  honor  of  Adonis ; 
the  whole  city  then  appeared  in  mourning,  and  funeral  pro- 
cessions  of  images,  representing  dead  persons,  were  carried 
about  the  streets.  To  what  amusement  were  the  Athenians 
most  partial  ?  To  theatrical  entertainments,  in  the  representa- 
tion of  which  they  excelled.  What  were  the  Anthesteria? 
Festivals,  in  which  the  slaves  were  entertained.  What  was  the 
Barathrum  ?  A  public  pit  in  Athens,  into  which  those  con- 
demned to  die  were  thrown. 

What  was  the  Lyceum  ?  Anciently  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Apollo  ;  afterwards  converted  into  a  public  school,  in  Athens, 
where  the  orators  declaimed.  Who  was  Epaminondas  ?  A 
celebrated  Theban  general,  the  contemporary  and  friend  of 
Pelopidas ;  they  jointly  gained  the  battle  of  Leuctra ;  Epami- 
nondas commanded  at  Mantinea  alone,  where  he  bravely  fell,  in 
his  last  moments  breathing  an  ardent  wish  for  the  glory  and 
safety  of  his  country.  Where  stood  Pella  ?  This  city,  famed 
as  the  birthplace  of  King  Philip,  and  Alexander  his  son,  was 
anciently  the  capital  of  Macedonia.  What  Grecians  distin- 
guished themselves  against  J^hilip  of  Macedon,  by  their  speeches 
and  writings  ?  Lycurgus,  the  orator,  Demades,  and  the  cele- 
brated Demosthenes,  whose  orations  were  called  phihppics,  from 
Phihp,  king  of  Macedon,  against  whom  they  were  directed. 
Who  rivalled  Demosthenes  in  eloquence  ?  Eschines,  the  orator ; 
but  being  in  the  interest  of  the  Macedonian  king,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  to  Rhodes  and  Samos,  and  opened  a  school 
of  rhetoric,  in  which  he  had  the  magnanimity  to  recite  the  ora- 
tions of  his  rival  for  the  instruction  of  his  scholars.  When  was 
the  social  war,  or  war  of  the  aUies  ?  358  years  before  Christ, 
carried  on  by  several  Grecian  nations,  for  the  purpose  of  throw- 
ing oflF  the  Athenian  yoke,  and  re-establishing  independent  states. 
What  occasioned  the  sacred  war  ?  The  Phoceans,  who  in- 
habited those  territories  near  Delphos,  had  ploughed  up  some 
land  consecrated  to  Apollo;  for  this  supposed  sacrilege  they 
were  sentenced  by  the  Amphictyonic  council  to  pay  a  heavy 
fine  ;  and  upon  their  refusal  a  war  broke  out,  in  which  most  of 
the  Grecian  states  were  engaged,  called  the  sacred  war.  What 
sides  did  the  Greeks  take  in  this  quarrel  ?  The  Spartans  and 
A.thenians  assisted  the  Phoceans;  the  Beotians,  Locrians,  and 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  57 

Tbessalians,  sided  with  the  Amphictyons.  When  was  the  battle 
of  Cheronaea  ?  In  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon ;  by  the 
event  of  this  battle  Philip  became  master  of  Greece.  Where 
was  the  philosopher  Aristotle  born  ?  At  Stagyra,  a  city  in 
Macedon,  which  was  destroyed  by  I^ng  Philip,  but  rebuilt  by 
his  son  Alexander,  the  pupil  of  Aristotle.  Which  were  the 
first  battles  gained  by  Alexander  against  the  Persians  ?  Those 
of  Granicus,  Issus,  and  Arbela.  Where  stood  Tyre  ?  It  was 
a  city  of  Phoenicia,  besieged  and  taken  by  Alexander.  How 
did  Alexander  dishonor  his  character  in  respect  to  the  Tyrians  ? 
By  inhumanly  putting  them  all  to  the  sword,  except  2,000,  whom 
he  reserved  for  crucifixion ;  and  he  actually  had  crosses  erected 
along  the  sea-shore,  where  this  barbarous  sentence  was  rigidly 
executed.  What  particular  instance  did  Alexander  give  of  his 
pride  and  folly  ?  Suffering  his  subjects  to  pay  him  adora- 
tion as  the  reputed  son  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  (the  god  of  the 
Egyptians.)  Where  stood  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  ?  In 
Africa,  in  the  midst  of  the  Libyan  desert,  in  a  fertile  spot  called 
the  Northern  Oasis,  or  Oasis  of  Siwah ;  the  god  worshipped 
there  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Jupiter,  by  the  Egyptians 
Ammon  ;  at  length  both  these  names  became  one  :  Bacchus  is 
thought  to  have  built  the  temple.  In  what  battle  did  Alexan- 
der completely  triumph  over  the  Persians  ?  In  that  of  Arbela ; 
the  defeat  and  death  of  the  Persian  monarch  Darius  gave  Alex- 
ander another  empire.  Where  stood  Persepolis?  This  city 
was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Persian  empire,  now  called 
Cilminar,  or  the  Forty  Columns  ;  besieged  by  Alexander,  who, 
in  a  fit  of  intemperance,  burnt  its  palace.  Who  was  Calanus  ? 
An  Indian  philosopher,  who  attended  the  court  of  Alexandei 
of  Macedon.  What  was  his  end  ?  Although  he  professed  to 
follow  a  most  severe  philosophy,  yet,  being  attacked  by  a  painful 
disorder,  he  had  not  patience  to  bear  its  repeated  approaches, 
but  resolved  to  burn  himself  upon  a  funeral  pile.  Did  he  effect 
his  purpose  ?  Yes  ;  against  the  earnest  entreaties  of  Alexan- 
der :  it  is  generally  supposed  that  he  was  prompted  to  this 
action  chiefly  by  vain-glory,  and  the  desire  of  making  himself 
conspicuous  to  after  ages.  What  story  does  Josephus  relate  of 
some  Jewish  soldiers  in  the  service  of  Alexander  ?  When 
commanded  by  that  prince  to  assist  in  rebuilding  the  temple  of 
Belus,  (which  Xerxes  had  destroyed,)  they  absolutely  refused, 
alleging  that  as  idolatry  was  forbidden  by  their  law,  the  respect 
due  to  that  and  their  conscience  would  not  allow  them  to  assist 
in  the  erection  of  a  temple  designed  for  idolatrous  purposes. 
How  did  Alexander  act  upon  this  ?     He  gave  orders  for  their 


58  HERO  AND  LEANDER. 

immediate  punishment ;  but,  upon  reflection,  their  conduct  ap' 
peared  in  a  more  favorable  light,  and  he  discharged  and  sent 
them  home.  How  did  Alexander  in  one  day  evince  the  ex- 
tremes of  generosity  and  passion  ?  In  the  morning  he  gave  his 
friend  Clytus  the  government  of  Maracanda,  one  of  his  most 
important  cities  ;  and  in  the  evening  killed  him,  in  a  hasty  fit  of 
resentment,  at  a  banquet.  Who  was  Porus  ?  An  Indian  prince, 
who  was  taken  prisoner  by  Alexander ;  and  when  brought  be- 
fore him  in  chains,  showed  equal  fortitude  and  presence  of  mind : 
the  Macedonian  monarch  asked  how  he  would  be  treated ;  As  a 
king,  replied  Porus  :  Do  you  then  wish  for  nothing  more  ?  said 
Alexander.  No  :  all  things  are  comprehended  in  that  sentence. 
Alexander,  touched  by  his  greatness  of  soul,  restored  him  his 
kingdom.  Who  were  the  Theti  ?  This  was  a  name  given  to 
ihe  lower  class  of  people  among  the  Athenians,  including  all 
artisans  and  laboring  men.  How  did  the  Athenians  honor  those 
who  fell  in  their  country's  defence?  Their  most  celebrated 
orators  were  appointed  to  pronounce  funeral  orations  in  their 
praise  :  this  was  done  to  inspire  the  Athenians  with  an  ardent 
desire  of  glory  and  military  fame.  How  were  the  children  of 
those  Athenians  who  died  in  battle  treated  ?  At  the  time  of 
their  solemn  festivals  a  herald,  producing  these  children  dressed 
in  complete  armor,  proclaimed  in  words  to  this  effect :  "  These 
orphans,  whom  a  sudden  and  glorious  death  has  deprived  of 
their  illustrious  fathers,  have  found  in  the  people  a  parent,  whose 
care  was  extended  to  them  during  infancy ;  and  now,  armed  at 
all  points,  their  country  invites  them  to  follow  the  bent  of  their 
own  genius,  and  to  emulate  each  other  hi  deserving  the  chief 
employments  of  the  state."  How  did  the  Greeks  excel  the 
Romans  in  humanity  ?  They  could  never  be  persuaded  to  have 
public  exhibitions  of  gladiators  in  their  cities  ;  and  the  speech  oi 
an  Athenian  upon  this  subject  well  deserves  to  be  remembered. 
"First,"  said  he,  "before  we  permit  these  barbarous  shows, 
let  us  throw  down  the  altar  which  our  ancestors  have  erected 
to  mercy."  What  story  is  recorded  of  the  Hellespont  ?  This 
strait,  which  lies  between  Europe  and  Asia,  has  been  famed  as 
the  place  where  Leander  met  an  untimely  fate :  he  was  attached 
to  Hero,  a  priestess  of  Venus ;  and  is  said  to  have  swam  over  th« 
Hellespont,  nightly,  to  \isit  her ;  but  Avas  at  length  unfortunately 
droAvned ;  and  she,  in  despair,  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  Why 
was  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  executed  ?  This  prince,  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Alexander's  successors,  Avished  to  revive  the 
ancient  laws  of  Lycurgus,  but  his  people,  dead  to  all  sense  of 
iustice  or  virtue,  rose  against,  and  condemned  him  to  this  igno- 


GRECIAN  ORACLES,  ETC. 


59 


ininious  end.  What  forms  of  government  liave  at  different 
periods  prevailed  in  Athens  ?  It  was  first  governed  by  kings  ; 
then  by  archons ;  they  gave  place  to  the  tyrannical  power  of 
the  Pisistratides  ;  this  was  destroyed,  and  freedom  again  re- 
stored, till  the  city  was  taken  by  the  Lacedemonians;  the 
thirty  tyrants  then  assumed  absolute  power,  and  after  their  ex- 
pulsion the  democratical  form  of  government  was  again  estab- 
lished, till  the  Romans  made  Greece  a  tributary  province. 
What  forms  of  government  have  prevailed  in  Sparta?  For 
the  space  of  900  years  it  was  governed  by  kings ;  then  Ly- 
curgus  establislied  a  repubUc,  which  continued  700  years  longer, 
under  the  most  pi-omising  auspices ;  but  the  Spartans  having 
subdued  the  neighboring  states,  particularly  the  Athenians,  the 
tide  of  victory  began  to  turn,  and  the  Thebans,  headed  by 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas,  compelled  them,  after  the  battle  of 
Leuctra,  to  sue  for  peace.  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  finally  the 
Romans,  completed  the  conquest  of  this  famous  state.  What 
was  meant  by  Great  Greece  ?  The  colonies  settled  by  the 
Grecians  in^  the  southern  parts  of  Italy  and  Sicily.  Where 
stood  the  city  of  Sybaris  ?  In  Great  Greece  :  its  inhabitants 
were  noted  for  their  luxurious  and  effeminate  lives  ;  they  were 
enervated  by  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  the  richness  of  the 
soil,  and  their  great  wealth.  How  did  the  Sybarites  betray  the 
weakness  of  their  character  ?  They  are  said  to  have  decreed 
marks  of  distinction  to  such  as  excelled  in  giving  magnificent 
entertainments  ;  they  removed  from  their  city  those  citizens  and 
artisans  whose  work  was  noisy ;  and  even  the  cocks  were  ex- 
pelled, lest  their  shrill  cries  should  disturb  the  peaceful  slumbers 
of  the  inhabitants  :  in  the  war  with  Crotona  300,000  Sybarites 
were  defeated  by  100,000  of  their  enemies,  which  terminated 
their  existence  as  a  distinct  nation.  Name  the  most  famous 
oracles  consulted  by  the  Pagan  world.  That  of  Apollo,  at 
Delphos ;  of  Trophonius,  in  Beotia ;  the  temple  and  oracle  of 
the  Branchidae,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Miletus ;  and  one  at 
Dodona,  a  city  of  the  Molossians.  What  happened  to  the  tem- 
ple of  Delphos  ?  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  eighty-three  years 
before  Christ ;  from  that  time  the  famous  oracle  there  ceased  to 
answer  the  questions  proposed  to  it.  What  were  the  Mace- 
donian Phalanx,  and  the  Roman  Legion  ?  The  Phalanx  was  a 
body  of  heavy-armed  infantry,  consisting  of  16,000  men,  placed 
always  in  the  centre  of  the  battle  ;  and  the  Legion  was  a  body 
of  the  Roman  army,  consisting  of  ten  companies,  placed  always 
in  the  van,  or  rear,  containing  from  3  to  6,000  men.  Four  le- 
gions, the  standing  army,  were  placed  under  the  control  of  the 


60  DEATH   ^F  SARDANAPALUP. 

two  consuls,  in  equal  commands, — on  the  approach  of  war  tliia 
force  was  increased,  and  on  some  occasions  there  were  eip»hteen 
legions  armed  and  on  duty. 


MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS 

IN 

-     GENERA!  HISTORY, 

CHIEFLY   ANCIENT. 


The  sage  historic  muse 
Shall  next  conduct  us  through  the  deeps  of  Time, 
Show  us  how  empire  grew,  declined,  and  fell 
In  scattered  states  ;  as  thus  we  talked 
Our  hejurts  would  bum  within  us,  would  inhale 
That  portion  of  Divinity,  that  ray 
Of  purest  heaven,  which  lights  the  public  soul 
Of  patriots,  and  of  heroes. 

Thomson's  "W  lnteb. 

Name  the  four  great  ancient  monarchies.  The  Assyrian  or 
Babylonian,  the  Persian,  the  Grecian,  and  the  Roman.  Name 
the  four  earliest  Assyrian  monarchs.  Nimrod,  Belus,  afterwards 
worshipped,  Ninus,  and  Semiramis ;  this  queen  finished  building 
the  city  of  Babylon,  in  a  style  of  superior  magnificence ;  the 
city  consisted  of  an  inmiense  square,  divided  by  the  Euphrates 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts  ;  Herodotus  states,  that  the  palace 
and  tower  stood  in  opposite  divisions ;  and  modem  travellers 
seem  confident  that  the  ruins  of  the  palace  are  on  the  eastern 
side,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  stupendous  pile,  called  the 
"  Birs  of  Nimrod, ^^  is  all  that  remains  of  the  famous  Tower  o" 
Belus.  For  what  was  Babylon  famed  ?  ilfor  its  hanging  gar- 
dens, and  great  walls  ;  its  inhabitants  were  peculiarly  luxurious 
and  eflfeminate.  Who  was  Sardanapalus  ?  The  last  king  of 
the  first  Assyrian  empire ;  his  luxury  and  effeminacy  were 
notorious ;  he  reigned  twenty-three  years,  and  being  besieged 
by  the  Bactrians  in  his  city  of  Nineveh,  he  defended  it  for  two 
years ;  but,  an  inundation  of  the  Euphrates  having  destroyea 
part  of  the  walls  and  rendered  the  city  untenable,  he  burnt 
himself  in  bis  palace  with  his  domestics,  b.  c.  7l7;  from  th** 


FEAST  OF  THE  PASSOVER.  61 

ruins  of  his  kingdom  were  founded  the  three  separate  ones  of 
Nineveh,  Babylon,  and  Media.  Which  ancient  nation  had  the 
clearest  ideas  of  religion  ?  The  Jewish  nation  ;  they  being  then 
the  only  people  who  adored  the  one  true  God  :  Moses  was  their 
lawgiver.  How  were  the  Jews  anciently  governed  ?  First,  by 
judges ;  during  that  period  they  fell  frequently  into  idolatry 
and  slavery :  then  by  kings ;  till  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  the 
tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah  into  captivity :  after  their  return 
to  their  native  land  they  were  ruled  by  high-priests  and  the 
Sanhedrim,  or  council  of  experienced  Jews  :  the  Maccabean  race 
then  governed  Judea  as  high-priests  and  kings :  the  famous 
Herod  was  their  first  Idumean  prince ;  he  is  said  to  have  com- 
manded the  slaughter  of  the  innocents  :  some  years  before  his 
reign  the  Jews  had  acknowledged  themselves  tributary  to  the 
Komans. 

What  great  feast  and  fast  do  the  Jews  commemorate  ?  The 
feast  is  that  of  the  passover,  which  they  keep  annually,  in 
memory  of  the  destroying  angel  passing  the  door  of  the  Israel- 
ites, and  slaying  the  first-bom  of  the  Egyptians ;  and  they 
observe  the  fifth  month  in  every  year  as  a  fast,  in  remembrance 
of  the  seventy  years'  captivity.  For  what  were  the  Chaldeans 
famed  ?  For  their  knowledge  of  astronomy,  and  pretended 
divination  by  dreams.  Which  ancient  nation  was  the  most 
ridiculously  superstitious  ?  The  Egyptians  ;  they  worshipped 
as  deities,  leeks,  onions,  cats,  dogs,  worms,  and  serpents ;  their 
religion  was  gloomy,  and  even  their  acquirements  in  natural 
philosophy  mystical :  every  thing  was  ascribed  by  them  to  the 
immediate  influence  of  their  gods ;  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Hermes, 
were  gods  of  separate  diseases ;  their  system  of  magic  rested 
on  this  notion. 

What  custom  was  peculiar  to  the  Egyptians  ?  That  of  judg- 
ing people  after  their  death :  if  upon  examination  they  were 
found  to  have  acquitted  themselves  with  credit,  their  bodies 
were  decreed  honorable  funeral  ceremonies  ;  if  otherwise,  they 
were  thrown  to  the  dogs.  By  what  virtue  were  the  Egyptians 
distinguished  ?  By  gratitude.  Where  stood  the  celebrated 
city  of  Hehopolis  ?  In  Lower  Egypt ;  there  was  erected  in  it 
a  magnificent  temple,  dedicated  to  the  sun.  What  ancient  na- 
tion first  instituted  libraries  ?  The  Egyptians  :  they  were  called 
offices  or  treasuries  for  the  diseases  of  the  soul.  What  lav/  had 
the  Egyptians  with  respect  to  debtors  and  creditors  ?  No  man 
was  permitted  to  borrow  money  without  pawning  to  the  creditor 
the  dead  body  of  his  father,  or  nearest  ancestor,  which  every 
man  kept  embalmed  in  his  house ;  it  was  thought  infamous,  and 

6 


62  EGYPT  ANP  PERSIA. 

impious,  not  to  redeem  so  precious  a  pledge ;  and  he  who  died 
without  having  discharged  that  duty,  was  deprived  of  the  cus- 
tomary honors  of  burial.  Who  was  Sesostris  ?  Son  of  that 
Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea  ;  he 
conquered  Asia  ;  made  Ethiopia  and  Scythia  tributary ;  obtained 
the  surname  of  Egyptus  ;  and,  after  a  long  reign,  killed  himself. 
Who  built  the  Pyramids  ?  Cheops,  Cephrenus,  and  Asychis, 
all  kings  of  Egypt,  and  chiefly  noted  for  their  oppression  :  after 
their  reigns,  few  among  the  Egyptian  princes  are  worth  record- 
ing, till  in  the  year  b.  c.  685  twelve  of  the  chief  lords,  during 
a  state  of  anarchy,  seized  the  kingdom,  and  shs  red  it  into  twelve 
parts,  each  governing  with  equal  authority :  this  government 
was  called  a  dodecarchy,  and  lasted  fifteen  years.  Which  of 
these  lords  most  distinguished  himself?  Psammeticus,  who 
defeated  the  eleven,  and  became  sole  monarch  of  Egypt ;  he 
was  distinguished  for  valor  and  prudence.  What  did  the 
Egyptians  use  as  a  substitute  for  paper  ?  The  bark  of  trees, 
and  a  species  of  reed  grass  called  papyrus,  that  grows  in  the 
stagnant  places  of  the  Nile.  For  what  were  the  ancient  Persians 
famed  ?  For  learning,  hospitality,  and  love  of  magnificence. 
To  what  god  did  they  direct  their  supreme  adoration  ?  To 
Oromasdes.  Who  were  the  Satraps  ?  Governors  of  provinces 
among  the  Persians.  What  punishment  was  peculiar  to  the 
Persians  ?  Smothering  in  ashes  ;  Darius  Nothus  inflicted  it 
upon  his  own  brother.  Which  of  the  ancient  nations  paid  the 
greatest  attention  to  the  education  of  their  children  ?  The  Per- 
sians ;  but  they  were  at  length  inspired  by  the  Medes  with  a 
taste  for  luxury  and  effbminacy,  which  afterwards  became 
consp^.cuous  in  them.  Which  is  the  most  ancient  kind  of  idol- 
atry ?  That  which  the  Persians  adopted  ;  the  worship  of  the 
sun  and  moon.  Who  were  the  Magi  ?  An  order  of  Persian 
priests,  founded  by  Zoroaster,  who  worshipped  fire.  What 
were  the  principal  tenets  of  the  Magi  ?  They  professed  an  utter 
aversion  to  images,  for  which  reason  they  worshipped  their  god 
under  the  form  of  fire :  the  Sabeans,  another  order  of  priests, 
who  allowed  the  worship  of  images,  derived  their  ideas  of  re  ■ 
ligion,  in  some  degree,  from  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  ;  for 
they  considered  each  planet  •  as  inhabited  by  some  superior 
being,  and  thus  image  worship  spread  from  the  Persians  to  the 
Greeks.     {  3"  "^'' 

What  rank  did  the  priests  hold  in  ancient  Egypt?  They 
were  considered  as  next  in  dignity  to  the  king ;  their  land  paid 
no  taxes,  and  they  were  consulted  as  oracles,  both  in  religion 
and  literature.    What  opinions  had  the  eastern  naticms  concern- 


ATHENIANS    AND    LACEDEMONIANS.  63 

ing  guardian  angels?  They  thought  that  every  man  at  his 
birth  had  his  good  genius  given,  to  attend  him  through  life,  as 
his  guide  and  director.  What  ideas  had  the  ancients  of  a  future 
life  ?  As  they  entertained  some  confused  notions  of  a  future 
state  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  their  first  care  after  a 
battle  was  to  demand  a  suspension  of  arms  till  the  sacred  rites 
of  sepulture  were  performed ;  on  these  duties  they  imagined 
the  happiness  of  a  future  state  Avould  depend.  What  nation 
paid  particular  respect  to  old  age?  The  Egyptians  and  the 
Spartans,  ever  ready  to  'engraft  in  their  laws  any  thing  which 
tended  to  the  preservation  of  good  order  in  society,  adopted 
this  rule,  and  obliged  their  youth  to  rise  up  in  the  presence  of 
the  aged,  and  offer  them  the  most  honorable  seats.  What  story 
is  related  of  the  Spartans  as  to  this  law?  At  a  theatrical 
repi^esentation,  when  an  old  man,  an  Athenian,  came  too  late  to 
be  able  to  procure  a  good  seat,  the  young  Athenians  unani- 
mously endeavored  to  sit  close,  and  keep  him  out.  Abashed 
at  this,  he  hastily  made  his  way  to  the  seats  appointed  f^r  the 
Lacedemonians  :  they  all  immediately  rose  and  received  him  in 
the  most  honorable  manner.  The  Athenians,  struck  with  a 
sudden  sense  of  virtue,  gave  a  thunder  of  applause ;  and  the 
old  man  exclaimed,  "  The  Athenians  know  what  is  right,  but 
the  Lacedemonians  practise  it !"  How  were  false  accusers  pmi- 
iohed  in  Egypt  ?  They  were  sentenced  to  undergo  the  same 
punishment  which  those  they  accused  would  have  merited,  had 
the  accusation  been  just.  What  was  a  libation  ?  Pouring  out 
upon  the  ground  either  milk,  wine,  or  any  other  liquor,  after 
the  priests  had  tasted  it :  this  ceremony  was  performed  by  the 
ancients  in  honor  of  their  deities.  What  opinions,  employments, 
and  manner  of  living,  had  the  ancient  Bramins  ?  They  believed 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  on  this  account  abstained 
from  meat ;  they  studied  astrology  and  astronomy,  assisted  at 
the  public  sacr.^ces,  and  the  only  tribute  which  they  paid  to 
the  king  of  their  country  was  their  advice.  Did  all  hold  the 
same  opinions  ?  No ;  they  were  divided  into  many  sects : 
some  of  thesr?!  thought  self-murder  not  only  defensible  but  vir- 
tuous;  and  when  oppressed  by  age,  or  sickness,  deemed  it 
meritorious  to  burn  themselves  alive :  another  order  spent 
great  part  of  the  day  in  chanting  hymns  to  their  deities ;  their 
lives  were  passed  in  solitude,  and  they  thought  it  wrong  to 
marry.  Who  was  Confucius  ?  A  celebrated  Chinese  philoso- 
pher, who  flourished  about  550  b.  c. ;  he  was  of  royal  descent, 
a  Mandarin  in  the  province  of  Lu ;  was  famed  for  his  wisdom 
and  virtue,  and  the  reformer  of  the  Chinese  religion.     Who 


64  STORY    OF    DAMOCLES. 

fought  the  battle  of  Thymbria  ?  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  ceh> 
brated  for  his  riches,  and  Cyrus  king  of  Persia;  the  former 
being  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  Sardis,  the  capital  of  his 
dominions,  became  subject  to  the  Persians. 

What  kings  in  ancient  history  aflford  the  most  striking  proof 
of  the  vicissitudes  to  which  human  life  is  subject  ?  The  rich  Croe- 
sus, king  of  Lydia,  who,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  condemned 
to  be  burnt  ahve  by  Cyrus,  but  was  afterwards  pardoned ;  and 
Dionysius  the  Younger,  tyrant  of  Sicily,  who  from  a  powerful 
monarch  became  a  schoolmaster  at  Corinth.  How  did  Damo- 
cles, the  Sicilian,  learn  that  the  life  of  a  tyrant  is  not  as  happy 
as  it  appears  to  be  ?  Damocles,  who  was  one  of  the  courtiers 
of  Dionysius  the  Elder,  frequently  extolled  the  happiness  of 
his  master,  thus  surrounded  by  wealth  and  power :  Will  you 
then,  said  Dionysius,  make  trial  of  my  felicity  ?  The  offer  was 
accepted,  and  Damocles  ushered  into  a  room  where  the  most 
magnificent  repast  was  prepared ;  incense,  perfumes,  and  slaves 
of  the  highest  beauty  appeared  in  profusion.  What  followed  ? 
In  the  midst  of  all  his  pleasures  he  cast  his  eyes  towards  the 
ceiUng,  and  perceived  the  point  of  a  sword  hanging  by  a  single 
horse-hair  over  his  head ;  all  his  joy  now  vanished,  anxiety  took 
possession  of  his  mind,  and  he  learned  this  useful  lesson — that 
even  in  the  highest  stations  there  is  always  a  something  which 
corrodes  our  bliss,  and  renders  us  in  happiness  upon  an  equality 
with  others.  When  was  Agrigentura  founded?  This  city, 
anciently  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Sicily,  was  founded  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  38th  Olympiad ;  it  was  first  subject  to  the  Car- 
thaginians, then  to  the  Romans.  Name  the  tutelar  divinities  of 
the  Sicihans.  Ceres  and  Proserpine:  the  foundations  of  the 
temples  dedicated  to  them  are  now  the  basis  of  a  Christian 
church :  luxury,  and  a  taste  for  magnificent  expense,  not  even 
exceeded  by  Asiatic  splendor,  form  the  striking  characteristics 
of  the  Agrigentines.  For  what  building  was  ancient  Agrigen- 
tum  famed  ?  For  a  celebrated  temple,  dedicated  to  Juno, 
which,  at  the  siege  of  ths  city  by  the  Carthaginians,  was  burnt 
down ;  and  a  picture  of  Juno,  by  Zeuxis,  exquisitely  finished, 
shared  the  same  fate.  Who  was  Empedocles  ?  A  native  of 
Agrigentum,  who  flourished  400  years  before  Christ ;  he  shone 
as  a  philosopher,  but  was  noted  for  his  vanity,  which  led  him 
to  throw  himself  into  the  gulf  of  Mount  Etna,  in  hopes  that  the 
Sicilians  would  regard  him  as  some  divinity  suddenly  removed 
to  his  proper  sphere ;  but  the  mountain,  in  a  subsequent  erup- 
tion, threw  out  his  shppers,  and  discovered  the  real  fate  of -the 
pretended  deity. 


SICILY CARTHAGE.  65 

What  barbarous  punishment  was  used  by  Phalaris,  one  of 
the  Sicilian  tyrants?  A  brass-founder  of  Athens,  named  Pe- 
rillos,  knowing  the  cruel  disposition  of  Phalaris,  cast  a  brazen 
bull  larger  than  life  and  capable  of  containing  a  human  victim,  so 
contrived,  that  a  fire  being  placed  beneath  the  bull,  the  unhappy 
man  was  burnt  to  death :  Phalaris,  having  admired  it,  caused 
tho  inventor  to  make  the  first  trial  of  it  himself.  What  became 
of  Phalaris  ?  Zeno,  the  philosopher,  while  at  the  court  of  this 
prince,  advised  his  resignation ;  and  Phalaris,  suspecting  Zeno 
of  designs  inimical  to  his  crown,  immediately  ordered  him  to  the 
torture  ;  Zeno  refused  to  submit  to  this  outrage  upon  justice  and 
humanity,  reproached  the  assembled  citizens  for  criminal  weak- 
ness in  witnessing  the  execution  of  such  a  decree,  and  incited 
them  to  open  resistance  ;  animated  by  his  harangue,  they  flew 
to  aims,  defeated  the  tyrant's  guards,  and  Phalaris  was  stoned 
to  death  by  his  exasperated  people.  What  were  Scylla  and 
Charybdis  ?  A  rock  and  gulf  which  form  the  Straits  of 
Messina :  the  poetical  fiction  recorded  of  them  is,  that  Scylla 
was  formerly  a  beautiful  woman,  changed  by  the  .envy  of  the 
enchantress  Circe  into  a  monster  ;  Scylla,  in  despair,  threw  her- 
self into  the  sea,  and  was  turned  into  a  rock.  Charybdis  was 
said  to  be  a  ravenous  woman,  changed  by  Jupiter  into  a  gulf, 
beneath  the  rock.  Where  was  ancient  Carthage  situated,  and 
about  what  time  was  it  founded  ?  It  stood  on  a  peninsula  in 
the  Mediterranean,  thirty-six  miles  northwest  of  the  site  of 
Tunis,  and  352  miles  east  of  Algiers,  directly  opposite  to  Rome : 
the  Phoenicians  were  its  founders,  but  at  what  date  is  uncertain, 
perhaps  ]  00  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Which  were 
the  principal  deities  of  Carthage?  The  Moon  and  Saturn: 
they  frequently  sacrificed  human  victims  to  the  latter;  and 
when  Agathocles  threatened  to  besiege  the  city  of  Carthage,  its 
inhabitants,  to  appease  the  anger  of  Saturn,  sacrificed  200  chif.- 
dren  of  the  first  rank :  the  worship  of  fire  was  common  also  to 
the  Persians  and  Babylonians,  though  not  attended  with  such 
circumstances  of  horrid  barbarity.  To  what  did  the  Car- 
thaginians owe  their  riches  ?  Partly  to  their  trade,  and  partly 
to  their  discovery  of  the  silver  mines  in  Spain :  this  flourishing 
republic  existed  700  years.  Name  the  chief  curiosities  and 
antiquities  in  Egypt.  The  Pyramids,  the  Labyrinth,  the  Mum- 
my  Pits,  Pompey's  Pillar,  erected  at  Alexandria,  the  Sphynx, 
and  the  lake  of  Moeris,  dug:  to  receive  the  inundations  of  the 
Nile. 

How  did  the  successors  of  Alexander  divide  his  dominions  ? 
Into  four  separate  kingdoms ;  the  Macedonian,  the  Asiatic,  the 

6* 


THE  SEPTUAGINT. 

Syiian,  and  the  Egyptian.  Antipater  succeeded  Alexander  of 
Macedon  in  the  Macedonian  empire,  and  Perseus,  its  last  king, 
about  150  years  afterwards,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Roman 
Paulus  ^milius,  and  Macedonia  reduced  to  a  Roman  province. 
Who  claimed  the  Asiatic  kingdom?  Antigonus:  it  compre- 
hended NatoHa,  and  some  districts  beyond  Mount  Taurus  ;  this 
kingdom  was  at  length  di\dded  into  those  of  Pergamus,  Pontus, 
and  Armenia :  Pergamus  became  a  Roman  province  by  the  ex- 
press will  of  its  last  king,  who  appointed  the  Romans  his  heirs : 
Pontus  and  Armenia  fell  into  their  hands  in  the  time  of  Mithri- 
dates. 

Who  first,  upon  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  possessed 
the  Syrian  kingdom  ?  Seleucus  Nicanor :  it  flourished  long  un- 
der his  successors,  and  those  of  Antiochus,  till  the  nctorious 
Pompey  added  the  Syrian  monarchy  to  the  list  of  conquered 
provinces.  Who,  upon  Alexander's  death,  claimed  Egypt  ? 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  one  of  his  generals ;  twelve  princes,  his  succes- 
sors, called  after  him  Ptolemies,  governed  Egypt.  Cleopatra, 
its  last  monarch,  was  subdued  by  Augustus  Caesar.  Who  was 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ?  One  of  those  kings  of  Egypt,  who 
employed  seventy-two  linguists  to  translate  the  Old  Testament 
into  the  Greek  language  :  a  translation  frequently  called  the 
Septuagint,  from  the  number  of  those  employed  in  it ;  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  also  founded  the  Alexandrian  library.  When  was 
this  library  burnt?  Forty-seven  years  before  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  it  contained  400,000  valuable  books.  Name  the  most 
famous  battles  of  antiquity.  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Arte- 
misium,  Salamin,  or  Salamis,  Platea,  Eurymedon,  Arginusa, 
Leuctra,  Granicus,  Arbela,  Issus,  Ticinus,  Trebia,  Thrasymene, 
Cannae,  Zama,  Pharsalia,  Philippi,  and  Actium.  Name  the 
most  famous  sieges  of  antiquity.  That  of  Babylon,  by  Cyrus 
and  Darius  ;  of  Carthage,  by  the  Romans  ;  of  Platea,  by  the 
Lacedemonians  :  of  Syracuse,  by  the  Athenians ;  of  Tyre,  by 
Alexander  the  Great ;  and  of  Athens,  by  Sylla,  the  Roman 
dictator.  Name  the  great  examples  of  mutual  friendship,  in 
ancient  history.  David  and  Jonathan,  Jews;  Damon  and 
Pythias,  Sicilians — they  hved  under  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syra- 
cuse ;  Pylades  and  Orestes,  natives  of  Argos ;  Epaminondas 
and  Pelopidas,  Thebans  ;  Cicero  and  Atticus,  the  Scipios,  and 
the  Laelii,  Romans.  What  ancient  queens  have  been  most 
celebrated  ?  Didc,  said  to  be  the  founder  and  queen  of  Car- 
thage, (Virgil  makes  JEneas  her  lover  and  contemporary,  though 
this  is  certainly  an  anachronism ;)  Artemisia,  queen  of  Caria, 
VhI  widow  of  Mausoleus,  to  whose  memory  she  erected  a  noble 


CHRISTIANITY  aND  MAHOMETAN  ISM.  6> 

monument;  it  was  411  feet  in  compass,  130  feet  high,  and  thn 
principal  front  adorned  with  thirty-six  columns  ;  it  was  reckoned 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  w^orld,  and  Praxiteles  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  employed  on  it ;  Thalestris,  queen  of  the 
Amazons,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  Cleopatra,  queen 
of  Egypt ;  and  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra.  What  was  remark- 
able in  Cleopatra  ?  She  was  equally  beautiful  and  luxurious  ;  yet, 
in  the  midst  of  her  excesses,  she  preserved  a  taste  for  polite 
learning  and  the  arts ;  her  ambition  was  unbounded  ;  Julius 
Caesar  and  Marc  Antony  were  successively  enslaved  by  her 
charms  :  her  empire  over  Antony  was  such  as  to  make  him  in- 
sensible to  the  claims  of  conjugal  affection,  patriotism,  and 
glory.  How  was  Zenobia  styled  ?  Empress  of  the  East :  she 
was  besieged  in  her  capital  by  the  Roman  Emperor  Aurelian, 
who  carried  her  captive  to  Rome :  Longinus,  the  celebrated 
critic  and  brator,  was  her  secretary. 

What  custom  was  long  prevalent  among  the  Gentoo  women  ? 
That  of  burning  themselves  upon  the  funeral  pile  of  their  hus- 
bands :  the  horrid  custom  was  founded  upon  a  passage  in  their 
Bedas,  or  sacred  writings  :  "  She  who  dies  with  her  husband,  shall 
live  with  him  forever  in  heaven."  What  are  the  Arundclian  mar- 
bles ?  They  are  ancient  marble  tablets,  found  in  the  isle  of  Paros, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  supposed 
to  be  sculpture(L  in  the  year  b.  c.  264  ;  they  contain  the  chro- 
nology of  ancient  history ;  were  bought  for  the  celebrated  Ear 
of  Arundel,  and  afterwards  presented  to  the  Oxford  University. 
Over  what  parts  of  the  known  world  has  Christianity  extended  ? 
Those  who  embraced  the  gospel  were  first  termed  Christians  at 
Antioch  ;  its  doctrines  prevailed  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe 
as  early  as  the  year  50  ;  in  Britain  it  was  the  general  religion 
about  A.  D.  156  ;  Christianity  extended  over  the  north  of 
Europe  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century ;  at  the  opening 
of  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  extensively  promulgated  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  but  many  corruptions  crept  into  the  sys- 
tem ;  and,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  reformed  or  Protestant 
doctrine  spread  through  the  greatest  part  of  Christendom. 
Who  was  ^fahomet :  what  nations  acknowledge  his  doctrines  ? 
A  native  of  Mecca,  in  Arabia,  who,  about  the  year  of  our  Lord 
622,  declared  himself  a  greater  prophet  than  Jesus,  and  the 
last  whom  God  would  send  :  he  promised  his  followers  the 
speedy  conquest  and  undisturbed  possession  of  this  ■*•  orld  ;  and 
a  paradise  of  every  delight  in  another.  His  doctrines  are  received 
in  Arabia,  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  in  Asia,  Barbary,  Persia, 
Egypt,  India,  and  Nubia.     How  do  the  Mahometans  reckon 


i|P  GENERAL  COUNCILS. 

time  ?  From  the  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mahomet  from  liis  per* 
secutors,  a.  d.  622  ;  they  also  reverence  Mecca,  as  the  birth- 
place of  Mahomet  ;  and  Medina  as  that  of  his  interment 
Which  were  termed  expressively  the  dark  ages  ?  From  tht 
close  of  the  sixth  to  the  dawning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
During  this  dreary  night,  Alfred  and  Charlemagne  aimed  at  the 
revival  and  restoration  of  literature  in  their  dominions,  but  with 
little  success.  The  Arabians,  in  the  ninth  century,  were  the 
great  patrons  of  the  arts  and  learning,  while  the  mists  of  super- 
stition and  ignorance  enveloped  Europe.  Who  are  the  Cardi- 
nals ?  The  word  cardinal  was  applied  originally  to  the  pres- 
byters and  deacons  in  great  churches ;  but  in  the  eleventh 
century,  to  the  presbyters  and  deacons  of  Rome  only :  in 
Imitation  of  Christ's  disciples,  their  number  was  Hmited  to 
seventy.  How  did  they  rise  into  such  estimation  with  the 
Catholic  church  ?  Gradually ;  their  exclusive  power  of  electing 
the  popes  was  acquired  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor : 
they  first  wore  the  red  hat  (a  token  that  they  were  to  shed  their 
blood  for  religion  if  necessary)  towards  the  middle  of  Henry 
in.'s  reign  :  they  received  from  pope  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of 
Eminence,  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  of  England  :  their  power  is, 
however,  at  present  much  diminished,  having  httle  influence  in 
the  Christian  world.  What  is  the  Conclave  ?  An  assembly  of 
the  cardinals,  after  the  pope's  decease,  to  elect  his  successor : 
the  distinguished  family  of  Medici  gave  two  popes  to  the  eccle- 
siastical state,  viz.  Leo  X.,  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and 
Clement  VIL,  natural  son  of  Juhan,  the  brother  of  Lorenzo ; 
Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  were  patronizers  of  the  fine  arts  :  Julius 
began  St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome  ;  the  architect  was  Michael 
Angelo.  What  is  meant  by  Christian  or  General  Councils? 
They  were  meetings  of  the  pope,  cardinals,  and  clergy,  for  the 
suppression  of  what  were  termed  Heresies  ;  and  to  fix  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Roman  church.  By  whom  was  the  first  Christian 
council  held  ?  By  the  Apostles,  in  the  year  50  ;  the  first 
general  one  was  held  at  Nice  in  325,  for  the  express  purpose 
of  censuring  the  doctrines  of  Anus,  at  which  the  emperor  Con- 
stantino presided.  How  many  general  councils  have  been  held  ? 
Twenty  :  the  four  most  noted  were  as  follow :  the  seventh 
general  council,  which  was  held  towards  the  end  of  the  Saxon 
heptarchy,  to  restore  the  worship  of  images  :  the  tenth,  to  pre- 
serve to  the  church  its  revenues  and  temporalities,  which  was 
called  in  Stephen's  reign',!  000  fathers  attending  :  the  fifteenth, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  to  suppress  the  order  of  Knights 
Templars ;  and  the  twentieth,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  to 


THE  POPEDOM TOURNAMENTS.  69 

condemn  the  doctrines  of  the  celebrated  reformers,  Luther  and 
Calvin.  The  name  pope,  derived  from  the  Greek  papas,  father, 
was  given  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  long  before  he  possessed  the 
authority  that  is  now  connected  with  his  name.  From  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century  he  was  the  first  amongst  the  five  Patriarchs 
of  Christendom,  because  Rome  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the  last  dwelling-place  of 
the  apostle  Peter ;  his  jurisdiction  over  foreign  kingdoms  was  ob- 
tained by  the  pretence  of  being  the  successor  of  Saint  Peter,  by 
the  wealth  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  by  a  decree  of 
*vhe  Emperor  Valentinian  III.  in  445.  The  advantages  gained 
at  this  date  were  extended  in  the  eighth  century  ty  the  es- 
tablishment of  churches  in  Germany,  subject  to  Rome  ;  by  the 
political  confusion  in  Italy  and  France ;  the  decretals  of  the 
pretended  Isidore ;  the  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
empires,  and  the  individual  superiority  of  some  popes  over  their 
contemporaries.  Name  some  of  the  most  famous  popes.  Leo 
the  Great,  the  first  pope  whose  writings  have  been  preserved : 
Hyginus,  who  estabhshed  the  form  of  consecrating  churches, 
and  ordained  that  godfathers  and  godmothers  should  stand  for 
children ;  he  lived  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church  :  Sylvester, 
in  whose  popedom  was  the  council  of  Nice  :  Gregory,  first  called 
the  Great,  who,  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  introduced 
many  new  doctrines,  processions,  &c. :  Boniface  V.,  who,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  seventh  century,  made  churches  sanctu- 
aries for  criminals  :  Leo  III.,  who  crowned  Charlemagne  :  Ser- 
gius,  who,  from  a  swine-driver  became  a  pope  ;  and  Benedict 
IX.,  whose  scandalous  life  has  frequently  disgraced  the  his- 
torian's pen  ;  he  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century ; 
was  several  times  deposed  and  restored ;  and  once  sold  his  pre- 
tensions to  the  papacy,  but  resumed  them  again.  Name  some 
famous  popes  since  the  Norman  conquest.  Gregory  VII., 
whose  power  was  once  excessive  ;  he  excommimicated  the  em- 
peror of  Germany,  but  afterwards  died  himself  in  exile  :  Adrian 
IV.,  whose  former  name  was  Nicholas  Brakespeare,  the  only 
Englishman  who  ever  reached  that  dignity :  Innocent  III.,  who 
appointed  auricular  confession,  and  established  the  infamous  in- 
quisition :  Clement  V.,  who  removed  the  seat  of  power  from  Rome 
to  Avignon :  Leo  X.,  noted  for  granting  indulgences ;  he  was  pope 
when  Luther  preached  against  them :  Clement  VII.,  who  excom- 
municated Henry  VIII.,  king  of  England  :  Gregory  XIIL,  the 
reformer  of  the  calendar :  Sixtus  V.,  and  Clement  XIV.,  (or 
Oanganelli,)  both  excellent  popes.  What  gave  rise  to  tourna- 
ments?    They  took  their  lise  from    the   suppression   of  the 


70  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  FOUNDED. 

gladiators  in  tlie  fifth  century ;  at  tlieir  first  institution,  a  knight, 
who  was  superior  to  a  rich  lord  in  single  combat,  set  what  price 
he  pleased  upon  the  liberty  of  the  vanquished,  and  many,  after 
they  had  killed  their  adversary,  obliged  his  friends  or  relations 
to  purchase  the  mangled  body  and  spoils,  left  in  possession  of 
the  victor ;  but  at  length  these  tournaments  assumed  the  ap- 
pearance of  mock  fights,  the  combatants  taking  the  precaution 
to  blunt  the  points  of  their  swords  and  lances.  "  Impartial 
taste,"  says  Gibbon,  "  must  prefer  a  Gothic  tournament  to  the 
Olympic  games  of  classic  antiquity.  Instead  of  the  naked 
spectacles  which  corrupted  the  manners  of  the  Greeks,  the 
pompous  decoration  of  the  lists  was  crowned  with  the  presence 
of  chaste  and  high-born  beauty,  from  whose  hands  the  con- 
queror received  the  prize  of  his  dexterity  and  courage.  The 
tournaments  as  they  were  invented  in  France,  and  adopted  in 
the  east  and  west,  presented  a  lively  image  of  the  business  of 
the  field.  The  single  combat,  the  general  skirmish,  the  defence 
of  a  pass  or  castle,  were  rehearsed  as  in  actual  service ;  and  the 
contest,  both  in  real  and  in  mimic  war,  was  decided  by  the 
superior  management  of  horse  and  lance." 

liame  some  famous  Peruvian  emperors.  Manco  Capac, 
founder  of  the  empire :  Huana  Capac,  and  Atahuallpa,  who 
was  emperor  when  Pizarro  conquered  the  country.  Name  the 
most  celebrated  Mexican  emperors.  Montezuma  and  Guatimo- 
zin.  Name  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable  Turkish  emperors. 
The  Emir  Osman,  (bone-breaker,)  a  bold  and  successful  captain, 
unobstructed  by  the  weak  and  divided  Byzantines,  founded 
upon  the  ruins  of  the  Saracen,  Seljook,  and  Mongol  power,  the 
empire  of  the  Osman  or  Ottoman  Turks  in  Asia,  in  the  year 
1300,  i.  e.  700  of  the  Hegira,  or  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet. 
He  forced  the  passes  of  Olympus  with  his  Tartan  horde,  pro- 
claimed himself  sultan,  and  reigned  till  his  death  in  lo2G.  To 
him  succeeded  eight  great  princes,  whom  the  dignity  of  cahph 
placed  iff  possession  of  the  standard  of  the  prophet ;  they  were 
animated  by  religious  fanaticism,  and  a  passion  for  military  glory. 
Orchan,  the  son  of  Osman,  organized  a  valiant  infantry,  com- 
posed of  Christian  slaves  brought  up  in  the  Mohammedan  faith ; 
styled  himself  Padishah;  and  the  entrance  to  his  palace  at 
Bursa  was  called  the  Porte.  Under  his  son  and  successor,  the 
brave  Soliman  I.,  the  Ottoman  army  spread  over  Europe  and 
Asia.  In  13G0,  Amurath  I.  took  Adrianople  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  his  empire  in  Europe,  subdued  Macedonia,  Albania, 
and  Servia ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Caschare,  in  1380,  was 
stabbed  by  his  rival,  who  lay  wounded  on  the  ground.   The  fcro* 


ROMAN  EMPER0R8.  71 

cious  Bajazefc,  surnamed  the  Lightning,  conquered  Sigismund, 
and  imposed  a  tribute  upon  the  Greek  empire ;  but  was  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  by  Tamerlane,  in  1402,  at  Ancyra, 
where  more  than  a  miUion  warriors  contested  the  empire  of  the 
world.  Amurath  II.  was  wise  and  valiant ;  having  concluded  a 
peace,  he  laid  down  the  reins  of  government,  but  the  perjury 
of  his  enemies  caused  him  to  gird  on  the  sword  of  Osman  again, 
beneath  which  the  Christians  fell  at  Varna ;  Ladislaus  and 
Julian,  legates  of  the  pope,  were  amongst  the  slain.  The  son 
of  this  great  prince,  Mohammed  II.,  set  up  Alexander  for  his 
model ;  he  took  Constantinople  29th  May,  1453,  when  the  last 
Palaeologus,  Constantino  XI.,  buried  himself  under  i\e  ruins  of 
his  throne  ;  and  from  that  period  Stamboul,  or  Cons  tantinople, 
has  been  the  residence  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  During  fifty 
years  the  Ottoman  arms  were  the  terror  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
especially  under  Soliman  II.,  called  the  Magnificent  and  the 
Lawgiver,  who  reigned  between  1519  and  1566.  This  prince 
united  the  priestly  dignity  of  the  caliph  to  that  of  the  Ottoman 
Porte.  From  SoHman's  decease  nineteen  sultans  have  reigned, 
amongst  whom  neither  a  brave  warrior  nor  victorious  prince 
has  appeared.  Mohammed  II.  reformed  Turkish  manners, 
and  annihilated  the  Janisaries.  He  was  succeeded  by  Abdul 
Med  j  id. 

Name  the  Roman  emperors  who  flourished  in  the  first  cen- 
tury. Augustus  Csesar,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  Nero, 
Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,  Vespasian,  Titus,  Domitian,  Nerva, 
Trajan.  Name  those  of  the  second  century.  Adrian,  Antoni- 
nus Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Verus  :  Commodus,  Pertinax, 
Didius,  Severus.  Name  those  of  the  third  century.  Caracalla 
and  Geta,  Macrinus,  Hehogabalus,  Alexander  Severus,  Maximi- 
nus,  Gordian  I.,  Pupienus  and  Balbinus,  Gordian  II.,  Gordian 
III.,  Philip  the  Arabian  and  his  son  Decius,  Gallus,  ^milian, 
Valerius  and  Gallienus,  Claudius  II.,  Aurelian,  Tacitus,  Probus, 
Carus,  Carinus  and  Numerian,  Dioclesian,  Constantius  Chlorus, 
and  Galerius.  Name  the  Roman  emperors  in  the  fourth  century. 
Constantino  the  Great,  Constantino  II.,  Constantius  and  Con- 
stans,  Julian  the  Apostate,  Jovian,  Valentinian  I.  and  Valens, 
Gratian,  Valentinian  II.^_J]ieodosius  I.,  Arcadius,  emperor  of 
the  East,  and  Honorius,  enipfe«(^r  of  the  West.  Who  was  the 
last  Roman  emperor  ?  Augustulus,  who  resigned  in  a.  d.  4*75, 
Inking  conquered  by  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli. 


78  FIRST  TO  FOURTH  CENTURA 


QUESTIONS, 

CONTAINING  A  SKETCH  OF  THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  EVENTS  FROM 
THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA  TO  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CEN- 
TURY. 

Name  the  great  events  in  the  first  century.  The  foundation 
of  London,  by  the  Romans ;  the  persecution  of  the  Druids,  in 
Britain ;  Rome  burnt  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  the  Christians 
first  persecuted  by  him ;  Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Titus ;  and 
the  New  Testament  written.  Name  the  chief  events  in  the 
second  century.  The  Scots  regained  those  territories  wrested 
from  them  by  the  Roman  power ;  and  the  Romans,  under  the 
conduct  of  Agricola,  built  many  strong  forts  in  Britain,  subju- 
gating that  nation  almost  entirely.  What  was  the  character  of 
Agricola's  civil  government  ?  He  reformed  abuses  occasioned 
by  the  avarice  of  his  predecessors ;  put  a  stop  to  extortion ; 
caused  justice  to  be  administered  impartially,  and  endeavored  to 
soften  the  rough  manners  of  the  Britons  by  the  introduction  of 
those  of  their  conquerors.  Name  some  distinguished  characters 
in  the  second  century.  Martial,  Pliny  the  Younger,  Suetonius, 
Plutarch,  Juvenal,  Ptolemy,  Justin,  Lucian,  and  Galen ;  the  five 
named  before  Ptolemy  wrote  chiefly  in  the  first  century,  but 
died  in  the  second.  Name  some  events  in  the  third  century. 
The  inroads  of  the  Goths  upon  the  Roman  empire,  to  whom 
the  emperors  consented  to  pay  tribute ;  and  the  professors  of 
Christianity  divided  into  many  ditferent  sects  :  in  this  century 
Origen  and  Cyprian  distinguished  themselves  by  their  theo- 
logical writings ;  Dion  Cassius  and  Herodian  flourished  as 
historians,  and  Longinus  as  a  critic  and  orator.  Name  the 
chief  events  of  the  fourth  century.  The  tenth  and  last  great 
persecution  of  the  Christians  stopped  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
who  became  one  of  the  most  zealous  professors  of  that  faith  :  a 
council  assembled  at  Nice  to  settle  the  disputes  between  Arius 
and  Athanasius  :  the  Roman  empire  divided,  and  governed  by 
separate  emperors ;  Constantinople  being  the  capital  of  the 
eastern,  and  Rome  of  the  western  empire.  Name  some  learned 
men  in  the  fourth  century.  At  this  period,  ecclesiastical 
knowledge  was  m.ost  in  request ;  and  Arius,  Eusebius,  Basil, 
and  Ambrose,  are  the  most  distinguished  writers  ;  Athanasius, 
and  ApoUinarius  flourished  then ;  and  Ossian,  the  celebrated 


FIFTH  TO  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.  73 

northern  poet.  What  were  the  remarkable  events  in  the  fifth 
century  ?  Rome  was  plundered  by  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths  : 
France  erected  into  a  monarchy :  the  heptarchy  established  in 
Britain ;  the  light  of  science  extinguished,  and  the  works  of 
the  learned  destroyed,  by  the  Goths,  and  other  fierce  invaders 
of  the  Roman  empire.  Name  the  chief  events  in  the  sixth 
century.  Time  computed  by  the  Christian  era :  a  plague, 
which  extended  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  lasting  fifty 
years  :  and  the  unlimited  temporal,  as  well  as  spiritual  authori- 
ty, assumed  by  the  popes.  Name  the  chief  events  of  the 
seventh  century.  The  successful  spread  of  the  Mahometan  re- 
ligion ;  Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Saracens,  followers  of  Mahomet, 
and  the  Alexandrian  library  (that  great  repository  for  general 
learning)  supposed  to  be  burnt  by  their  command  :  the  Britons 
also,  after  many  severe  struggles,  were  expelled  their  native 
country  by  the  Saxons,  and  many  of  them  obliged  to  retire  into 
Wales.  Name  the  most  distinguished  characters  in  the  seventh 
century.  Mahomet,  Ali,  and  the  general  patron  of  learning, 
Abubeker.  Name  the  chief  events  of  the  eighth  century.  Dis- 
putes respecting  image  worship  harassed  the  Christian  world, 
and  caused  many  insurrections  in  the  eastern  empire  ;  Bagdad 
became  the  residence  of  the  caliphs ;  and  the  Saracens  conquered 
Spain :  Aaron  or  Haroun  al  Raschid,  "  the  just,"  and  the 
''venerable  Bede,"  a  monk  of  Wearmouth,  the  most  authen- 
tic of  the  old  British  historians,  flourished  in  this  century. 
Name  some  events  in  the  ninth  century.  The  empire  of  Ger- 
many established  under  Charlemagne  :  Britain  perpetually  ha- 
rassed and  invaded  by  the  Danes  :  the  Scots  and  Picts  united. 
Name  some  events  in  the  tenth  century.  The  Saracen  power 
began  to  totter,  having  been  divided  into  seven  different  usurpa- 
tions ;  the  empire  of  Germany  made  elective ;  and  Poland 
erected  into  a  monarchy. 

Name  some  events  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  Turks  con- 
quered Persia,  and  retook  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens :  the 
Crusades  were  engaged  in ;  and  the  Moors  settled  themselves 
in  Spain :  Abelard,  so  famous  for  his  poetry,  divinity,  and 
attachment  to  Eloisa,  flourished  in  this  and  the  next  century. 
Name  some  distinguished  events  in  the  twelfth  century.  The 
srder  of  Knights  Templars  was  instituted  :  their  power  speedily 
became  excessive ;  the  Teutonic  order  of  knighthood  began  in 
Germany ;  and  Ireland,  without  conquest,  was  annexed  to  the 
British  crown.  Name  some  events  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  Tartars,  who  emigrated  from  the  northern  parts  of  Asia, 
overturned  the  Saracen  empire ;  the  inquisition  estabjfshed  bv 

1 


74  FOURTEENTH  TO  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

the  Dominicans,  under  pope  Innocent  Til. ;  and  the  English  ob- 
tained from  John,  their  unamiable  monarch,  the  famous  Magna 
.  Charta :  at  this  time  flourished  Dante,  the  poet ;  Bacon,  the 
philosopher ;  and  Matthew  Paris,  the  historian.  Name  some 
events  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  popes,  for  seventy  years, 
Clement  V.  having  removed  his  throne  to  Avignon  in  France, 
made  this  place  their  residence ;  the  Swiss  republic  was  found- 
ed ;  gunpowder  and  the  compass  invented  ;  gold  coined ;  and 
the  first  symptoms  of  the  reformation  appeared  in  England,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Wickliffe.  Name  the  chief  authors  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  Chaucer,  Boccace,  Gower,  Petrarch,  and 
Barbour,  poets,  and  Alain  Chartier,  the  historian. 

What  were  the  most  striking  events  in  the  fifteenth  century  ? 
Printing  was  introduced,  and  became  general;  Constantinople 
taken  by  the  Turks ;  civil  wars  in  England  between  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  which  continued  thirty  years,  and  de- 
stroyed 100,000  men;  the  Moors  driven  by  the  Spaniards  back 
to  Africa,  their  native  country ;  America  discovered  by  Christo- 
pher Columbus  ;  and  algebra,  originally  invented  by  the  Arabs, 
brought  into  Europe.  Name  some  great  men  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Leonardo  Da  Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Michael  Angelo, 
painters;  these  three  flourished  also  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Machiavel,  the  political  writer ;  Caxton,  the 
first  English  printer ;  and  the  celebrated  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam, 
the  great  restorer  of  learning.  What  were  the  principal  events 
of  the  sixteenth  century  ?  The  reformation  was  begun  in  Ger- 
many, by  Martin  Luther,  and  spread  through  England,  Scotland, 
Germany,  Denmark,  and  Sweden ;  the  monasteries  were  dis- 
solved in  England  and  Ireland  by  Henry  VIIL,  and  the  perse- 
cutions under  the  Papal  See  were  extended  over  Spain  and 
Italy ;  the  discoveries  of  the  Portuguese  ;  learning  revived  and 
protected  by  the  Medici,  a  Florentine  f^imily ;  the  massacre  of 
the  Protestants  by  command  of  Charles  IX.  of  France  on  St. 
Bartholomew's  day ;  the  foundation  of  the  Genevese  republic ; 
the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada ;  and  the  Swedish  revolution 
effected  by  Gustavus  Vasa.  Name  some  celebrated  characters 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  Luther,  Calvin,  Melancthon,  and 
John  Knox,  a  Scotchman,  refonners;  Bartholomew,  Gosnold, 
and  Sebastian  Cabot,  Englishmen,  navigators ;  Tycho  Brahe 
and  Copernicus,  astronomers ;  Shakspeare,  Spencer,  (English,) 
Tasso,  (Itahan,)  Camoens,  (Portuguese,)  Bonarelli,  poets  ;  Palla- 
dio,  the  Italian  architect ;  Cervantes,  the  Spanish  author  of  Doa 
Quixotte  ;  Socinus,  the  theologian ;  the  Scaligers,  critics ;  Titian, 
the  painter;  Bentivoglio,  De  Thou,  and  Buchanan,  historians' 


SEVENTEENTH  TO  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.  75 

Montaigne  and  Lord  Bacon,  philosophers.  Name  some  events 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  Great  part  of  North  America  set- 
tled by  the  EngUsh  ;  massacre  of  Irish  Protestants  ;  civil  wars 
between  king  Charles  and  his  parhament,  who  beheaded  their 
sovereign,  and  abohshed  royalty  and  episcopacy :  but  the  tide 
of  duty  and  allegiance  returning,  they  were  both  restored ;  the 
persecution  of  the  Protestants  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France ;  abdi- 
cation of  James  II.  of  England,  and  subsequent  revolution  there. 
Name  some  great  characters  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Bal- 
zac, Corneille,  the  Daciers,  Milton,  Dryden,  Racine,  Moliere,  and 
Boileau,  poets  ;  Cassini,  Galileo,  Gassendi,  Newton,  and  Halley, 
astronomers ;  Boyle,  Fontenelle,  and  Locke,  philosophers  ;  Puf- 
fendorf,  Grotius,  and  Leibnitz,  civilians ;  Bernini,  the  sculptor ; 
Guido,  the  painter ;  Strada,  the  historian ;  and  Boerhaave, 
the  medical  writer  and  practitioner.  What  were  the  chief 
events  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century?  Peter  of 
Russia,  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  military  exploits;  the  victorious  Marlborough  raised 
the  English  name ;  and  Kouli  Khan,  after  usurping  the  Per- 
sian throne,  conquered  the  Mogul  empire.  Name  some  from 
the  middle  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  new 
style  introduced  in  Britain,  in  the  year  1752,  (the  old  style 
is  still  used  in  Russia ;)  Lisbon  destroyed  by  an  earthquake ; 
the  order  of  Jesuits  suppressed  by  the  pope ;  dreadful  hurri- 
canes in  the  West  Indies,  and  earthquakes  in  Sicily ;  Gibraltar 
sustained  a  siege  of  three  years  against  the  united  powers  of 
France  and  Spain,  which  the  gallant  General  Elliott  (Lord 
Heathfield)  obliged  them  to  raise ;  the  British  colonies  in  North 
America  threw  off  the  British  yoke,  and  declared  themselves 
independent  in  1776  ;  the  revolution  in  France,  and  its  attend- 
ant horrors ;  the  rebellion  in  Ireland,  and  its  happy  termination. 
What  remarkable  man  appeared  in  this  century  whose  biography 
is  identical  with  the  history  of  Europe  ?  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
a  great  statesman  and  warrior,  born  15th  August,  1769,  at 
Ajaccio,  in  Cor-sica,  was  the  son  of  a  Corsican  nobleman,  edu- 
cated for  a  military  life  from  his  boyhood,  and  entered  the 
French  army  at  an  early  age  :  the  distracted  situation  of  France 
was  opportune  for  the  display  of  such  talents  and  fortune  as 
Bonaparte  possessed.  In  his  first  campaigns,  of  any  import- 
ance, he  issued  proclamations  to  his  soldiers  calculated  to  excite 
their  enthusiasm,  pride,  and  feeling  of  honor ;  and,  like  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  he  surprised  his  enemies  by  a  new  system  of 
tactics.  In  six  successive  days  he  obtained  as  many  victories 
over  a  veteran  Austrian  army,  took  valuable  spoils,  and  strongly 


70  NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

fortified  positions,  and  obliged  tlie  Sardinian  king  to  sue  fof 
peace.  What  rewards  did  France  bestow  upon  him  for  his 
brilUant  conquests  ?  He  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Italy;  first  consul  of  France,  in  1799;  president  of 
the  Italian  repubhc ;  and  finally  elected  emperor  of  the  French 
— the  dignity  to  be  hereditary  in  his  family — on  the  18th  of 
May,  1804.  Name  some  of  the  occasions  on  which  the  British 
arms  were  opposed  to  those  of  France,  during  the  government 
of  Napoleon.  The  battles  of  Copenhagen,  the  Nile,  and  Traf- 
algar; in  the  last,  which  took  place  in  1805,  the  combined 
fleets  of  France  and  Spain  were  defeated  by  the  English,  under 
the  conduct  of  the  intrepid  Admiral  Lord  Nelson,  to  whom 
fate  presented,  in  the  same  instant,  victory  and  death.  In 
Egypt  also  the  French  were  successfully  opposed,  and  Napo- 
leon compelled  ultimately  to  abandon  his  ambitious  speculations 
on  that  country,  by  Sir  Ealph  Abercromby  and  Sir  Sidney 
Smith ;  the  former  died  there  of  the  wounds  he  received  on 
the  field  of  battle.  Mention  some  of  the  extraordinary  changes 
made  by  Napoleon  in  the  dynasties  of  Europe.  He  united 
Bavaria'and  Wurtemburg,  and  constituted  them  a  kingdom ;  his 
brother  Joseph  was  proclaimed  king  of  the  two  territories, 
Louis  raised  to  the  throne  of  Holland,  and  himself  appointed 
protector  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806.  Jerome 
Bonaparte  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Westphaha,  and  Joseph 
on  that  of  Spain  in  1808.  Having  divorced  Josephine,  and 
espoused  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  he 
created  his  son,  by  that  princess,  king  of  Rome;  and,  in  1818, 
Bernadotte,  one  of  his  marshals,  ascended  the  Swedish  throne^ 
To  what  circumstances  and  individuals  is  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
attnbuted  ?  Having  invaded  Russia  with  a  powerful  army,  and 
entered  Moscow,  which  was  burned  by  the  inhabitants,  the 
severity  of  the  climate  in  1812  efiected  for  his  enemies,  that  to 
which  their  vast  numbers  with  such  inferior  discipline  was 
unequal.  From  his  Russian  disasters  Napoleon  never  entirely 
recovered ;  and  the  continued  successes  of  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington in  Spain,  in  1811  and  1812,  hastened  the  catastrophe 
of  his  life,  which  was  then  rapidly  approaching.  Russia,  Prus- 
sia, Austria,  and  England,  united  in  the  common  cause  against 
the  emperor  of  the  French,  at  length  compelled  him  to  sign  a 
formal  abdication  of  his  throne,  permitted  him  to  retire  to  the 
Island  of  Elba,  in  1814,  retaining  the  imperial  title,  and  grant- 
ing him  an  income  of  2,000,000  francs.  vHow  was  the  throne 
of  France  filled,  upon  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  ?  The  family 
of  Bourbon,  who  had  lived  in  exile  since  the  revolution,  re« 


NINETEENTH    CENTURY.  77 

turned,  and  Louis  XVIII.  tmtered  Paris  on  the  3d  of  May, 

1814.  How  long  did  Napoleon  conform  to  the  conditions  of 
his  abdication?  Until  the  1st  of  March,  1815,  when  he  landed 
at  Cannes,  near  Frejus,  and,  assembling  a  powerful  army,  en- 
tered Paris  again  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month,  Louis  XVIII. 
and  his  court  having  previously  fled.  This  violation  of  his 
formal  compact  led  to  the  coalition  of  the  four  great  powers 
before  mentioned,  for  the  total  extinction  of  his  power.  The 
Prussians,  however,  early  suffered  a  defeat,  and  it  was  reserved 
for  the  arms  of  Great  Britain,  guided  by  the  genius  of  Welling- 
ton, to  strike  down  the  empire  of  Napoleon  forever — which  he 
did  by  the  decisive  victory  of  Waterloo,  on  the  18th  of  June, 

1815.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  Napoleon  a  second  time 
abdicated  his  throne,  embarked  on  board  the  Bellerophon,  an 
English  man-of-war,  and,  being  denied  the  privilege  of  landing 
in  England,  was  transmitted  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  ac- 
companied by  a  few  faithful  adherents.  His  residence  at  St. 
Helena  commenced  on  the  15th  of  October,  1815,  and  termi- 
nated with  his  death  on  the  5th  of  May,  1821;  his  remains 
were  removed  from  that  island  to  France  just  nineteen  years 
after,  and  entombed  in  the  church  of  the  Invahds,  in  Paris :  he 
was  watched  with  unsparing  rigor  by  the  governor.  Sir  Hudson 
Lowe,  and  maintained  his  dignity  of  character  in  the  miseries  of 
exile  and  imprisonment.  What  important  political  changes  took 
place  in  Europe  after  the  deposition  of  Napoleon  ?  Louis  XVIII. 
reascended  the  throne  of  France,  and  reigned  without  interrup- 
tion till  his  death  in  1824.  The  independence  of  Brazil,  in  South 
America,  was  acknowledged  in  1821 ;  that  vast  country  was 
constituted  a  separate  empire.  In  1822  the  struggle  for  liberty 
in  Greece  terminated  happily,  in  the  separation  of  that  ancient 
country  from  Turkish  despotism;  and  in  1826  a  constitutional 
monarchy  was  erected  in  Portugal;  and,  in  1828,  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts,  which  abridged  the  rights  of  dissenters  in 
England,  were  repealed.  What  great  public  or  political  events 
occurred  soon  after  ?  A  revolution  in  France,  which  ended  in 
the  expulsion  of  Charles  X.  for  arbitrary  conduct,  exclusion  of 
his  family,  and  elevation  of  Louis  Phihppe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  to 
th^'.  throne  in  1830 ;  the  exiled  king  died  at  Goritz,  in  Illyria, 
in  1836,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  A  revolution  among  the  Bel- 
gians, in  1830,  who  expelled  the  family  of  Orange  from  their 
government,  and  elected  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  their  king,  in 
1831.  Don  Miguel  usurped  the  throne  of  Portugal,  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  niece.  Donna  Maria,  but,  after  a  sanguinary 
conflict,  was  compelled  to  abandon  it  in  1833;  in  1830  kiiu; 

1* 


78  NINETEENTPI    CENTURY. 

George  IV.  of  England  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brothel 
the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  took  the  title  of  William  IV. ;  the 
Poles  in  vain  endeavored  to  release  themselves  from  the  power 
of  Russia  in  1831 ;  the  Reform  Bill,  which  caused  an  extensive 
change  in  the  elective  franchise,  passed  the  British  Lords  and 
Commons  in  1832 ;  and  the  Cholera  Morbus  devastated  Europe 
during  the  years  1831  and  1832,  carrying  off,  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Hungaiy,  during  its  continuance,  300,000  persons. 
About  the  same  period  Algiers  was  taken  by  the  French,  on 
the  plea  of  abolishing  piracy  and  Christian  slavery,  but  with  the 
secret  object  of  having  a  port  near  the  entrance  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, to  control  the  trade  of  that  sea.  Name  some  of  the 
most  remarkable  occurrences  of  the  following  years.  In  1834, 
Feth-AH-Khan,  king  of  Persia,  dying  at  Teheran,  left  his  crown 
to  his  favorite  son  Mohammed,  to  the  mortification  of  his  fifty 
other  sons  ;  three  of  the  number  took  up  arms,  and  aspired  to 
the  throne,  but  Mohammed,  assisted  by  a  loan  of  £20,000  from 
the  English  envoy  at  his  court,  maintained  himself  against  his 
rivals.  This  latter  event  took  place  in  1835,  in  which  year  an 
attempt  was  made  in  Paris  by  Fieschi,  a  Corsican,  to  destroy 
Louis  Philippe ;  the  infernal  machine  discharged  a  tempest  of 
bullets  at  the  king  and  his  staff,  as  they  passed  along  the  Boule- 
vards, by  which  forty  persons  were  severely  wounded,  and  four- 
teen killed  ;  amongst  the  latter  was  Marshal  Mortier.  In  1835 
died  Francis  II.,  emperor  of  Austria,  whom  his  son  Ferdinand 
quietly  succeeded ;  and  in  the  same  year  Mehemet  AH  sent  an 
army  into  Syria,  under  the  command  of  his  son  Ibrahim  Pacha, 
who  completely  reduced  that  country.  For  what  is  the  year 
1837  particularly  remarkable?  The  ascent  of  the  Princess 
Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  to  the  throne  of  the 
British  empire,  on  the  death  of  her  uncle  William  IV. ;  as  the 
Salic  law  is  still  in  force  in  Hanover,  the  princess  could  not 
succeed  to  that  government,  which  devolved  upon  her  uncle, 
Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  he  being  the  next  in 
succession  to  her  father,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  who  would  have 
been  king  of  England  had  he  lived.  A  fatal  influenza  prevailed 
in  London  in  this  year,  and  an  insurrection  occurred  in  Canada, 
which  was  suppressed  by  the  firmness  of  Sir  John  Colbome, 
(Lord  Seaton.)  Particularize  some  of  the  events  of  1838.  The 
destruction  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,  by  fire,  on  the  10th 
of  January ;  the  coronation  of  Queen  Victoria,  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  on  the  28th  of  June ;  the  birth  of  the  Duke  of  Oporto, 
heir-apparent  to  the  Portuguese  throne  ;  rupture  between  Eng- 
land and  China,  in  consequence  of  the  prohibition  against  im- 


NINETEENTH  CENTURA.  79 

porting  opium  into  the  latter  country;  and  a  violent  riot  at 
Canterbury,  headed  by  one  Thorn,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
William  Courtenay,  in  which  Lieutenant  Bennett  was  killed. 
Were  there  any  very  remarkable  occurrences  in  the  year  1839  ? 
Several ; — none,  perhaps,  more  memorable  than  the  decease  of 
the  Sultan  Mahmoud  II. ;  he  had  put  the  janisaries  to  death, 
reformed  Turkish  institutions,  and  assimilated  them  to  those  of 
France  and  England.  His  son  and  successor  Abdul  Medjid 
possesses  the  reforming  predilections  of  his  father.  Spain  was 
relieved  from  the  miseries  of  a  civil  war  by  the  retirement  of 
Don  Carlos  from  the  contest  for  the  crown  ;  he  took  refuge  in 
France,  where  he  was  received  as  a  prisoner  on  his  parole. 
What  public  occurrences  took  place  in  England  in  1840  ?  Queen 
Victoria  was  married  to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg,  in  the 
Chapel  Royal  of  St.  James's,  London,  on  the  10th  of  February ; 
a  few  months  after  her  majesty  was  fired  at  by  Edward  Oxford, 
a  pot-boy,  as  she  rode  in  an  open  phaeton  up  Constitution  hill ; 
the  traitor  was  brought  to  trial,  and  convicted,  but  either  from 
a  suspicion  that  there  was  no  bullet  in  the  pistol,  or  a  still 
stronger  belief  that  he  was  not  in  his  perfect  mind,  the  queen 
was  pleased  to  spare  his  life ;  his  sentence  was  commuted  to 
confinement  for  life  in  a  lunatic  asylum.  In  the  event  of  any  ac- 
ciden\,  befalhng  the  queen.  Prince  Albert  had  been  named  regent. 
On  the  21st  of  November,  1840,  her  majesty  gave  birth  to  a 
princess,  and  on  the  9  th  of  November  in  the  following  year,  to 
a  prince,  who  is  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  The  destruction 
of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  and  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  Lon- 
don, by  fire,  and  at  brief  intervals  from^  each  other,  have  been 
mentioned  in  this  chapter ;  the  conflagration  of  the  Armory  of 
the  Tower  of  London,  on  Saturday  the  30th  of  October,  1841, 
is  Also  to  be  added ; — these  three  fires  were  attribated  to  ac- 
cident, 


80  THE    SEVEN   ROMAN   KINGS 


MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTI0N8 


KOMAN  HISTOKY. 

Of  rougher  front  a  mighty  people  come, 
A  race  of  heroes  ! 

Fabricius,  scomer  of  all-conquering  gold, 
And  Cincinnatus,  awful  from  the  plough. 

Thomson's  Winter 

Who  founded  Rome  ?  Romulus,  its  first  king.  It  was  al 
first  only  an  asylum  for  outlaws,  who  brought  thither  plunder, 
cattle,  fi-uits,  and  other  produce,  and  resembled  the  towns  yet 
existing  amongst  the  Grim  Tartars.  Romulus  was  engaged  in 
perpetual  predatory  excursions,  and  the  triumphs  to  which 
Rome  afterwards  owed  its  grandeur  originated  in  the  joyous  re- 
ception given  to  him  on  his  return  home  loaded  with  wheaten- 
sheaves  and  flocks.  Having  subdued  the  Sabines,  the  Romans 
laid  aside  the  small  buckler  of  Argos,  and  adopted  the  large 
Sabine  shield.  How  did  the  idolatry  of  the  Romans  diflfer  from 
that  of  surrounding  nations  ?  In  this  respect :  they  worshipped 
their  gods  originally  without  statues  or  images.  How  many 
kings  had  Rome  ?  Seven  :  of  these  Numa  Pompilius  and  Ser- 
vius  Tullius  are  thought  the  most  deserving,  and  Tarquin  the 
Proud  the  least  so.  Who  established  the  difference  between 
the  patricians  and  the  plebeians  ?  Romulus  :  the  former  were 
the  nobihty,  the  latter  the  common  people.  Who  appointed 
lictors  and  fasces  ?  Romulus :  lictors  were  twelve  men  who 
walked  before  the  king,  or  one  consul,  within  the  city ;  a  pub- 
lic servant  walked  before  the  other ;  and  fasces  were  bundles 
of  rods  with  an  axe  (securis)  in  the  middle,  carried  by  the  lic- 
tors. What  were  the  Celeres  ?  A  guard  of  300  young  men, 
instituted  by  Romulus  to  defend  his  person.  What  were  the 
Ancilia  among  the  Romans  ?  Twelve  sacred  bucklers  carried 
by  priests  called  Salii,  devoted  to  Mars,  symbolical  of  the  per- 
petuity of  the  empire,  in  the  reign  of  Numa  Pompilius.  Who 
were  the  Duumviri?  Two  magistrates  appointed  by  TuUus 
Hostilius  to  give  judgment  in  criminal  affairs — also  the  chief 
magistrates  in  the  colonies.  What  was  the  occasion  Qt  the  bat- 
tle between  the  Horatii  and  Curia tii  ?     There  was  a  wv  h^ 


MILITARY    PUNISHMENTS.  81 

tireen  the  Albans  and  the  Romans,  in  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius,  king  of  Rome ;  they  agreed  to  decide  it  by  a  combat  of 
three  persons  on  each  side  ;  the  Albans  chose  three  orothers 
called  Curiatii,  the  Romans  three  called  Horatii ;  they  fought, 
and  the  Horatii  gained  the  victory.  What  was  the  Census  ?  A 
general  survey  of  the  Roman  people  and  their  estates,  instituted 
by  Servius  Tullius ;  it  was  first  made  by  kings,  then  by  consuls, 
and  at  length  by  magistrates  called  censors,  whose  office  also 
extended  to  taxing  estates  and  reforming  the  manners  of  the 
people.  When  did  the  Romans  erect  their  temple  to  Faith  ? 
In  the  reign  of  Numa  Pompilius ;  that  dedicated  to  Fortune 
was  built  by  the  command  of  Servius  Tullius.  What  was  the 
Civic  Crown  ?  One  made  of  oak  leaves,  given  by  the  Romans 
to  him  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  fellow-citizen  in  battle.  Why 
was  the  orator's  pulpit  called  Rostrum  ?  From  the  rostra  or 
beaks  of  ships  taken  from  the  Antiates,  with  which  this  part  of 
the  forum  was  generally  adorned.  What  was  the  Adytum  ? 
The  sanctuary  in  the  pagan  temples,  into  which  none  but  the 
priests  were  admitted.  What  was  the  ancient  naval  crown? 
One  made  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  ships'  beaks,  and  presented 
to  him  who  first  boarded  an  enemy.  How  were  the  ancient 
Romans  trained  up  to  war  ?  A  place  was  appropriated  for  ex- 
ercise in  the  city,  called  the  Field  of  Mars ;  here  they  ran  and 
leaped  in  ponderous  armor,  carried  the  heaviest  weights,  and 
performed  all  martial  exercises  ;  war  and  agriculture  were  theii 
only  professions ;  their  bodies  were  kept  in  continual  activity  ! 
and  to  this  steady,  unrelaxed  discipUne,  they  owed  much  of 
their  fame  and  military  glory.  How  were  the  Roman  soldiers 
punished  for  small  deviations  from  duty  ?  They  were  always 
bled  ;  for  as  every  ancient  Roman  entertained  high  ideas  of  his 
own  prowess,  this  temporary  deprivation  of  strength  was  to 
them  the  most  sensible  mortification.  What  rule  was  observed 
inviolably  in  the  Roman  armies  ?  This  :  he  who  abandoned  his 
post,  or  quitted  his  arms  in  battle,  suffered  death.  When  were 
gladiators  first  publicly  exhibited  at  Rome  ?  a.  u.  490,  by 
two  brothers  named  Bruti,  at  the  funeral  of  their  father ;  the 
custom  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  practice  of  slaying  cap- 
tives at  the  tombs  of  those  who  fell  in  battle,  to  appease  their 
spirits  or  manes.  Why  were  the  Romans  entertained  with  gla* 
diators  ?  The  policy  of  their  rulers  accustomed  them  to  these 
exhibitions,  that  they  might  learn  to  look  upon  wounds  and 
bloodshed  without  shrinking  ;  these  shows  were  often  prohibited 
by  the  merciful  emperors,  but  never  totally  abolished  till  the 
reign  of  Honorius,  who  died  a.  d.  425.     Which  of  the  ancient 


82  DIVISIONS    OF    TIME. 

nations  paid  the  most  sacred  regard  to  an  oath  ?  The  Ro« 
mans :  even  during  their  greatest  corruptions,  this  high  sense 
of  honor  never  entirely  forsook  them.  What  was  the  Mural 
Crown  used  by  the  Romans  ?  One  indented  at  the  top  like  the 
battlements  of  a  wall,  and  bestowed  upon  him  who  first  scaled 
the  wall  of  an  enemy's  city. 

Into  how  many  parts  Avere  the  months  divided  by  the  Ro- 
mans ?  Three :  called  calends,  nones,  and  ides.  The  calends^ 
so  designated  because  a  priest  called  out  to  the  people  that  it 
was  new  moon,  was  the  first  day  of  the  month  :  the  nones  com- 
menced on  the  fifth  day  of  the  month,  and  were  nine  days  from 
the  ides,  counting  inclusively :  the  ides  fell  on  the  thirteenth 
day  of  every  month,  except  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
when  the  nones  fell  on  the  seventh  and  the  ides  on  the  fifteenth. 
What  was  a  Lustrum  ?  A  space  of  five  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  a  general  survey  was  taken  of  the  Romans  and  their 
estates.  What  was  an  Indiction  ?  A  space  of  fifteen  years, 
observed  among  the  Roman  people,  and  estabHshed  by  the  em- 
peror Constantine.  Name  the  different  forms  of  government  in 
Rome.  The  establishment  of  the  regal  power ;  then  of  the 
consulship,  which  continued  till  the  first  dictator  (T.  Lartius) 
was  chosen — nine  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings — from 
fear  of  a  domestic  sedition,  and  of  a  dangerous  war  from  the 
Latins :  then  succeeded  the  authority  of  the  decemviri — ten 
magistrates  selected  from  amongst  the  patricians,  with  supreme 
power,  and  from  whose  decision  was  no  liberty  of  appeal.  By 
a  decree  of  the  senate  and  order  of  the  people,  a.  u.  299,  three 
ambassadors  were  sent  to  Athens  to  copy  the  famous  laws  of 
Solon,  and  examine  into  the  institutions  of  other  Grecian  states  ; 
the  result  of  whose  labors  was  committed  to  the  decemviri,  by 
whom  they  were  embodied  into  twelve  tables,  engraven  on 
brass,  fixed  up  in  public,  and  continued  ever  after  to  be  the 
foundation  of  public  and  private  rights  throughout  the  Roman 
world  :  after  its  abolition  the  perpetual  dictatorship  prevailed 
for  a  short  time,  till  Augustus  Caesar  introduced  the  imperial 
power. 

What  were  Consuls  ?  Chief  magistrates  among  the  Romans ; 
two  acted  together,  and  their  authority  continued  one  year ; 
Brutus  and  CoUatinus  were  the  first  appointed  to  fill  this  high 
office.  What  was  a  Dictator  ?  A  magistrate,  who  was  invested 
with  supreme  power  for  six  months  ;  never  chosen  during  the 
earlier  ages  but  when  the  commonwealth  was  thought  in  ex- 
treme danger  ;  this  office  at  length  was  made  perpetual ;  Lartiua 
was  the   first  dictator.     What  were   Tribunes  ?     Magistrates, 


MILITARY  TRIBUNES.  83 

chosen  to  preserve  the  liberties  an(?  privileges  of  the  people 
against  the  power  and  encroachments  of  the  nobles  ;  at  first  two 
were  appointed,  then  five  ;  at  length  their  number  was  increased 
to  ten ;  they  were  at  first  chosen  indiscriminately  from  amongst 
the  plebeians,  but  afterwards  none  under  senatorian  rank  were 
elected  to  the  office :  a  tribune  had  no  external  mark  of  dignity 
except  being  preceded  in  pubhc  by  a  beadle  ;  he  had,  however, 
^i  right  of  precedency,  and  all  were  obliged  to  rise  in  his  pres- 
ence :  he  possessed  a  negative  power,  which  proved  useful  at 
first,  but  was  in  time  perverted  to  the  worst  purposes.  What 
occasioned  the  institution  of  Military  Tribunes  ?  The  plebeian 
Romans  being  displeased  with  the  consular  government,  three 
new  magistrates  were  chosen  in  the  year  of  the  republic  310, 
called  military  tribunes,  but  their  power  was  soon  laid  aside 
forever ;  and  Camillus,  the  dictator,  dedicated  a  temple  to 
Concord,  to  perpetuate  the  union  then  effected  between  the 
patricians  and  plebeians.  When  were  the  Decemviri  appointed 
in  Rome  ?  In  the  year  of  the  repubHc  302  ;  ten  were  chosen 
to  write  the  twelve  tables  of  the  Roman  law,  but  only  one  acted 
at  a  time  as  supreme  magistrate  ;  their  office  was  to  continue 
a  year,  but  they  kept  themselves  in  power  much  longer,  under 
pretence  of  finishing  the  tables  completely :  they  acted  tyran- 
nically— were  at  length  compelled  to  resign,  and  all  perished 
either  in  prison  or  in  banishment.  What  were  the  offices  of 
Quaestor  and  -cEdile  ?  The  Quaestors  were  two  in  number,  and 
were  to  take  care  of  the  public  money  and  contributions,  sell 
plunder,  &c. ;  but  in  Julius  Caesar's  time  they  amounted  tc 
forty  :  there  were  also  two  plebeian  ^diles,  who  were  to  assist 
the  tribunes,  rectify  weights  and  measures ;  and  two  curule 
-^diles,  who  provided  the  public  games.  What  rival  states 
showed  great  antipathy  to  each  other  ?  Rome  and  Carthage. 
What  was  meant  by  the  Punic  wars  ?  The  wars  between  the 
Romans  and  the  Carthaginians ;  the  words  Punic  Faith  were 
afterwards  proverbioily  applied  to  the  latter  people,  for  their 
shameful  breach  of  public  faith.  What  gave  rise  to  the  Punic 
wars  ?  The  oflfence  which  the  Romans  took  at  the  assistance 
granted  by  the  Carthaginians  to  the  southern  parts  of  Italy, 
then  at  war  with  Rome.  How  long  did  the  Punic  wars  subsist  ? 
The  first,  twenty-four  years  ;  the  second,  seventeen  years ;  and 
the  third  and  last,  four  years  and  some  months.  Who  was 
Hannibal?  A  famous  Carthaginian  general,  rival  of  Scipio 
Africanus  :  he  was  the  son  of  Hamilcar  Barcas,  born  247  years 
before  Christ ;  and,  at  the  age  of  nine  years,  his  father  made 
him  swear  at  the  altar  eternal  hatred  to  the  Romans.    Upon 


84  HANNIBAL CORIOLANUS 

the  murder  of  Asdrubal,  the  army  conferred  the  chief  command 
upon  him  by  acclamation.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  years, 
faithful  to  his  early  vow,  he  commenced  a  career  of  military 
glory  by  the  taking  of  Saguntum ;  he  next  assembled  90,000 
infantry,  forty  elephants,  and  12,000  horsemen,  and  traversing 
Gaul  reached  the  Alps,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  crossing 
either  the  Little  St.  Bernard  or  Genevre,  entered  Italy,  which 
for  sixteen  years  he  held  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  mighty 
Rome ;  being  recalled  to  oppose  Scipio  Africanus,  who  was 
advanced  within  five  days'  journey  of  Carthage,  he  suffered  a 
defeat,  and  20,000  of  his  soldiers  were  left  dead  upon  the  field. 
Name  the  four  great  battles  in  which  Hannibal  defeated  the 
Romans.  ^  Ticinus,  Trebia,  Thrasymene,  and  Cannae  ;  but 
Hannibal  was  himself  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Zama,  in  Africa, 
by  Scipio,  thence  surnamed  Africanus.  What  remarkable  com- 
manders fell  a  sacrifice  during  these  wars  ?  Regiilus,  Flaminius, 
and  two  of  the  Scipios,  on  the  Roman  side  ;  Asdrubal,  Hanno, 
Postar,  and  Hannibal,  on  the  Carthaginian :  Regiilus,  being 
defeated  under  the  walls  of  Carthage,  where  20,000  Romans 
perished,  was  made  prisoner,  and  was  shortly  after  sent  on  an 
embassy  to  Rome,  bound  by  an  oath  that  he  would  return  to 
Carthage  if  the  senate  should  reject  tile  proposed  terms  of 
peace — arrived  at  Rome,  he  recommended  to  his  countrymen 
the  continuance  of  the  war,  and  rejecting  the  prayers  of  rela- 
tions, and  solicitations  of  friends,  remained  faithful  to  his  ob- 
ligation, and  returned  to  Carthage,  where  it  is  asserted  he  was 
deprived  of  life  by  the  most  cruel  tortures.  When  did  the 
Romans  acquire  a  taste  for  the  arts  ?  In  the  270th  year  of  the 
republic.  For  what  W3re  the  Romans  particularly  famed  ? 
For  their  perseverance,  love  of  fame,  and  patriotism.  Where 
did  Hannibal  and  his  army,  infatuated  with  the  seductions  of 
luxury,  forget  their  character  as  soldiers  ?  At  Capua,  in  Ital} 
where  they  passed  a  winter. 

Who  was  Coriolanus  ?  A  noble  Roman,  by  name  Caius 
Marius,  but  surnamed  Coriolanus  for  his  bravery  at  the  siege  of 
Corioli,  the  capital  of  the  Volsci.  Having  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  patricians,  during  the  famine  at  Rome,  491  years 
B.  c,  and  refused  to  distribute  the  SiciUan  corn  to  the  people 
unless  they  agreed  to  the  abolition  of  the  tribuneship,  he  was 
brought  to  trial  before  the  whole  people  and  banished.  The 
more  effectually  to  revenge  himself  upon  his  country,  he  applied 
to  Attius,  and  those  very  Volsci  whom  he  had  subdued,  and 
readily  obtained  the  command  of  their  forces  destined  against 
Eome.     Making  directly  towards  his  native  city,  he  encamped 


CAMILLUS FABIUS  CUNCTATOR.  85 

before  its  walls,  and  thence  dismissed  the  envoys  of  the  senate, 
until  at  last  a  mournful  train,  led  by  his  mother  Yeturia,  his 
wife  Volumnia,  and  his  children,  arrived  at  his  camp,  and  Ve- 
turia  prostrating  herself  at  his  feet,  the  hero  raised  her  from  the 
ground,  exclaiming,  "  Mother,  thou  hast  saved  Rome,  but  lost 
thy  son."  He  then-  withdrew  his  army,  and  returning  was  as- 
sassinated in  a  tumult  of  the  Volscians,  excited  by  his  enemy 
and  rival,  Attius.  Who  was  Siccius  Dentatus  ?  A  Roman  who 
fought  120  battles  for  his  country,  and  gained  fourteen  civic  and 
four  mural  crowns :  he  was,  notwithstanding  his  services,  never 
properly  recompensed,  and  soon  after  basely  assassinated  by 
command  of  the  decemviri.  Who  was  Camillus  ?  A  Roman 
general  and  dictator,  memorable  for  taking  the  town  of  Veil, 
after  it  had  been  besieged  ten  years ;  he  then  forbad  the  sol- 
diers to  plunder,  and  they  in  revenge  instigated  the  tribunes  to 
accuse  Camillus  of  fraudulent  practices ;  he  was  unjustly  ban- 
ished ;  but  Rome  being  besieged  by  the  Gauls,  he  nobly  re  • 
turned,  completely  defeated  them,  and  once  more  enjoyed  the 
highest  offices :  he  afterwards  fett  a  sacrifice  to  the  plague 
which  desolated  the  city.  What  Roman  sacrificed  himself  io 
appease  the  fury  of  the  gods  ?  Decius :  Publius  Decius  Mus, 
the  consul,  in  a  war  agauist  the  Latins,  340  years  b.  c,  devoted 
himself  for  his  country,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  his 
son  and  his  grandson.  Such  acts  of  self-devotion  were  not  un- 
frequent  at  a  time  when  patriotism  and  piety  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence,  and  were  performed  with  great  solemnity.  The 
wilhng  victim,  after  performing  certain  religious  rites,  rushed 
into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  clad  in  splendid  armor,  to  show 
how  a  brave  man  ought  to  die  for  his  country.  Marcus  Curtius, 
a  Roman  youth,  clad  in  armor  and  mounted  on  horseback, 
leaped  into  a  gulf  in  the  Forum,  which  the  oracle  had  declared 
would  never  close  until  what  constituted  the  glory  of  Rome 
should  be  thrown  into  it — this  Curtius  interpreted  to  be  valor. 
Which  of  the  Romans  beheaded  his  son  for  contempt  of  his 
consular  authority?  Manlius  Torquatus.  What  Roman  was 
most  famed  for  his  integrity  ?  Fabricius :  king  Pyrrhus,  his 
enemy,  declared  publicly,  that  it  was  easier  to  turn  the  sun 
from  its  course,  than  Fabricius  from  the  path  of  honor.  Who 
was  Fabius  Maximus  ?  A  dictator,  who  led  the  Roman  armies 
against  Hannibal ;  his  caution  and  experience  were  such,  that 
without  hazarding  a  battle  he  continued  to  keep  the  troops  of 
Hannibal  in  perpetual  alarm,  whilst  his  own  remained  in  security ; 
on  this  account  he  was  termed  the  buckler  of  Rome  and  sur- 
named  Cunctator.   Who  was  Cato  the  Censor  ?    A  philosopher. 

8 


86  PROSCRIPTIONS  FIRST  INTRODUCED. 

brave,  just,  and  famed  for  the  severity  of  his  manners  :  he  was 
the  inveterate  enemy  of  Carthage,  and  continually  advising  its 
destruction.  Name  the  destroyer  of  Cartilage.  Scipio  -^mili- 
anus,  surnamed  the  Younger  Africanus  ;  after  a  siege  of  twenty 
days,  he  took  the  once  powerful  rival  of  Rome,  his  friend  Laeliua 
being  the  first  to  ascend  the  walls,  146  years  b.  c,  and  by 
command  of  the  senate,  demoHshed  and  lurnt  it :  this  hero  and 
Julius  Caesar  are  said  to  have  best  unite-d  the  military  and 
liter-ary  talents. 

What  instance  of  determined  resolution  was  shown  by  a  Car- 
thaginian at  this  time  ?  When  Carthage  was  destroyed,  (which 
continued  burning  seventeen  days,)  the  wife  of  Asdrubal,  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  threw  herself  into 
the  flames.  Who  afterwards  rebuilt  Carthage  ?  Augustus 
Caesar,  and  in  some  degree  re-established  its  prosperity ;  but 
the  Arabs,  in  the  seventh  century,  once  more  demolished  it ; 
and  Tunis  now  stands  near  its  ruins.  Name  the  four  most  am- 
bitious men  in  Rome.  Marias,  Sylla,  Pompey,  and  Caesar. 
When  happened  the  first  important  civil  war  in  Rome  ?  In  the 
y«ear  of  the  repubhc  QQ5,  between  Sylla  and  Marius.  Name 
some  of  the  most  temperate  Romans.  Cincinnatus,  Fabricius, 
Cato,  and  Cicero.  Name  the  three  most  luxurious.  LucuUus, 
Catiline,  and  Sylla. 

What  is  meant  by  proscriptions  of  the  people  ?  Banishing 
them,  confiscating  their  goods,  setting  them  up  for  sale,  and 
sometimes  putting  them  to  death.  Who  invented  proscriptions  ? 
Sylla,  upon  his  return  into  the  city,  after  conquering  the  faction 
of  Marius  :  he  wrote  down  (proscribed)  the  names  of  those  whom 
he  doomed  to  die,  and  ordered  them  to  be  fixed  up  on  tablets 
in  public  places  of  the  city,  with  a  promise  of  a  reward  for  the 
head  of  each  proscribed  person  ;  the  first  list  included  the  names 
of  forty  senators  and  1,600  knights.  What  Roman  showed  the 
greatest  depravity  of  heart,  and  inchnation  to  betray  his  country  ? 
Ctitiline :  Cicero  discovered  his  conspiracy.  Who  formed  the 
first  Roman  Triumvirate  ?  Crassus,  Pompey,  and  Julius  Caesar. 
The  policy  of  Caesar  effected  this  incongruous  union,  which 
should  rather  be  termed  a  coalition  than  a  triumvirate — that  he 
might  quietly  enjoy  the  consulship,  ingratiate  himself  with  the 
plebeians,  and  after  crushing  the  factions  of  his  colleagues,  unite 
them  both  in  his  interest.  Caesar  was  born  10th  July,  100  years 
before  Christ,  and  became  an  able  general,  statesman,  and 
historian  ;  he  possessed  deep  penetration,  tenacious  memory,  a 
lively  imagination,  indefatigable  in  business  ;  and  Pliny  says  he 
could  read,  write,  hear,  and  dictate,  at  the  same  time,  from  four 


THE  BATTLE  OF  PHARSALIA.  87 

to  seven  different  letters.  He  escaped  the  proscription  of  Sylla, 
who  declared  "  he  saw  many  a  Marius  in  the  striphng  Caesar." 
He  afterwards  defeated,  captured,  and  crucified  the  ^gean 
pirates,  who  robbed  him  on  his  voyage  to  Rhodes  to  study  un 
der  Apollonius ;  he  was  privy  to  Catiline's  conspiracy,  but 
obtaining  a  command  in  Spain,  was  heard  to  remark  as  he 
passed  a  wretched  village  there,  "  that  he  would  rather  be  first 
in  it  than  second  in  Rome."  Upon  his  return  he  obtained  the 
consulship,  overran  Gaul,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Britain,  and 
reached  the  highest  degree  of  popularity.  Which  of  his  col- 
leagues became  his  adversary  ?  Pompey  the  Great,  who  feared 
the  increasing  power  of  Caesar  ;  the  senate  and  consuls  foljowed 
Pompey 's  standards,  while  Juhus  relied  upon  the  affection  of  his 
soldiers,  and  threatened  to  march  to  Rome  unless  they  would 
grant  him  justice,  or  to  resign  his  command  in  case  Pompey 
would  do  so  too.  What  decree  did  the  Roman  senate  pass, 
when  menaced  by  Caesar  ?  They  enacted,  that  whoever  should 
pass  the  river  Rubicon,  either  with  a  cohort,  legion,  or  army, 
should  be  deemed  a  sacrilegious  man  and  a  parricide,  and  be 
solemnly  devoted  to  the  infernal  deities  ;  but  decrees  of  this 
kind  were  ineffectual  when  the  republic  was  convulsed  to  its 
centre  ;  and,  calling  on  his  soldiers  to  defend  the  honor  of  their 
leader,  he  passed  the  Rubicon,  forty-nine  years  b.  c,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Italy  without  striking  a  blow,  as  Pompey, 
destitute  of  troops,  had  withdrawn  from  the  city,  together  with 
the  consuls,  senators,  and  magistrates.  When  was  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia  fought  ?  Forty-seven  years  before  Christ,  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar  ;  when  the  latter  proved  victorious,  and  be- 
came master  of  the  Roman  liberties.  In  this  decisive  conflict 
Pompey  is  said  to  have  shown  himself  unworthy  of  his  renown- 
ed and  venerated  name ;  perceiving  his  troops  thrown  into 
disorder,  he  retired  to  his  tent,  and  remained  in  a  state  of 
stupefaction  until  the  approach  of  the  conquerors  obliged  him 
to  consult  for  his  safety.  Escaping  to  the  island  of  Lesbos,  he 
took  his  faithful  Cornelia  on  board — sailed  for  the  court  of 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  but  he  scarcely  set  foot  upon  the  shore  when 
he  was  basely  assassinated.  When  Caesar  arrived  in  Egypt  the 
head  of  his  rival  was  presented  to  him,  but  he  turned  from  the 
Bight  with  tears — punished  the  assassins — caused  the  remains  to 
be  interred,  and  erected  a  temple  to  Nemesis  over  the  gi'f^e. 
Where  did  Cato  die  ?  He  killed  himself  at  Utica,  in  Africa,  be- 
cause he  scorned  to  sur\dve  the  liberties  of  his  country. 

What  doctrine  was  introduced  at  Rome  towards  the  end  of 
the  repubhc  ?    That  called  the  Epicurean ;  its  tenets,  evidently 


88  THE  DEATH  OF  C^SAR. 

favoring  luxury  and  sensuality,  are  by  many  tliouglit  to  have 
had  a  powerful  effect  in  corrupting  the  minds  of  the  Romans, 
and  extinguishing  the  noble  spirit  which  one©  animated  them. 
Epicurus  himself  made  pleasure  to  consist  in  virtue ;  his  fol- 
lowers shamefully  perverted  that  doctrine,  and  were  noted  for 
the  freedom  of  their  lives.  Who  conspired  the  death  of  Ceesar  ? 
Brutus  and  Cassius  ;  the  former  had  been  his  intimate  friend  : 
he  was  assassinated  on  the  15th  of  March,  forty-four  years  be- 
fore Christ,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  pierced  by  twenty- 
three  wounds,  which  laid  him  lifeless  at  the  pedestal  of  Pompey's 
statue :  he  was  a  merciful  ruler,  had  been  the  victor  in  500 
battles,  and  the  conqueror  of  1000  cities.  What  caused  the 
most  frequent  seditions  among  the  Roman  soldiers  ?  The  great 
interest  paid  for  money  lent ;  the  laws  made  by  the  decemviri 
forbade  raising  interest  above  twelve  per  cent. ;  but  these  laws 
were  neglected,  and  the  excessive  usury  practised  at  Rome 
caused  most  of  the  calamities  which  afterwards  befell  the  em- 
pire. How  were  victorious  commanders  rewarded  amongst  the 
Romans  ?  By  a  triumph  or  solemn  procession,  which  Avas  the 
highest  military  honor,  and  the  most  splendid  spectacle  of 
ancient  Rome.  The  enemy  must  have  been  foreign  and  free^ 
the  war  just,  and  the  number  slain  must  have  reached  5000  at 
least,  to  entitle  the  general  to  this  honor.  How  were  the 
superior  triumphs  conducted  ?  On  the  day  appointed,  the 
oreneral,  crowned  with  laurel,  in  after  ages  with  gold,  pro- 
nounced an  oration  to  the  soldiery  and  sun*ounding  multitudcr 
relating  his  mihtary  Achievements  ;  then  the  march  began  with 
a  long  procession,  in  which  were  carried  inscriptions,  containing 
the  names  of  the  nations,  provinces,  or  cities,  he  had  conquered ; 
the  priests  assisted,  leading  the  beasts  used  for  sacrifice.  Who 
closed  the  procession  ?  The  conqueror,  in  an  ivory  car,  richly 
ornamented  ;  he  was  surrounded  by  his  friends  and  relations, 
bearing  branches  of  laurel :  tlie  procession  stopped  at  the 
Capitol,  where  they  sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  and  deposited  part 
of  the  spoils.  How  was  the  lustre  of  the  Roman  conquests 
tarnished  ?  By  their  inhumanity  to  the  conquered ;  their  prison- 
ers, if  of  high  rank,  were  only  reserved  to  suffer  superior  morti- 
fications ;  the  captive  monarchs  and  generals  were  bound  in 
chains,  their  heads  closely  shaven,  (a  mark  of  peculiar  degrada- 
tion,) and  they  were  thus  presented  a  sad  spectacle  it  the 
gazing  multitude. 

What  was  an  Ovation  ?  A  kind  of  inferior  triumph  among 
the  Romans,  conferred  upon  those  whose  victories  were  not 
?ery  considerable ;  Posthumius  was  the  first  honored  with  one : 


THE  AUGUSTAM   AGE  89 

in  the  Ovation,  the  general  walked  on  foot  in  his  common  habit, 
and  was  met  by  the  knights  and  citizens  ;  he  was  not  allowed  a 
sceptre,  and  instead  of  drums  and  trumpets,  fifes  and  tiutea 
were  carried  before  him.  How  long  did  the  custom  of  trmmph- 
ino-  after  a  battle  continue  ?  From  Romulus  to  Augustus,  when 
they  were  forbidden,  with  some  few  exceptions,  till  some  ages 
after:  then,  Belisarius,  having,  under  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
subjugated  Africa,  taken  Rome,  Carthage,  and  Ravenna  from 
the  hands  of  the  Goths,  was  permitted  by  his  sovereign  to  make 
his  triumphal  entry  into  Constantinople.  When  Avas  the  second 
great  Roman  Triumvirate  formed  ?  After  Julius  Caesar's  death, 
when  Octavius  Caesar,  Marc  Antony,  and  Lepidus  shared  the 
Roman  power  among  them ;  but  Octavius  was  afterwards 
declared  emperor  by  the  title  of  Augustus  Caesar.  Between 
whom  was  the  battle  of  Philippi  ?  It  was  fought  by  Brutus- 
and  Cassius,  on  one  side  ;  Marc  Antony  and  Octavius  Caesar,  on 
the  other  ;  its  issue  totally  overturned  the  Roman  republic,  and 
estabhshed  the  imperial  form  of  government.  In  what  great 
battle  was  Marc  Antony  finally  defeated  ?  At  the  battle  of 
Actium,  off  the  coast  of  Epirus,  by  Octavius  Caesar.  When 
did  Egypt  become  a  Roman  province  ?  In  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus :  it  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans  700  years. 
What  particular  change  did  Augustus  effect  in  the  Roman  con- 
stitution ?  When  declared  emperor,  he  deprived  the  people  of 
their  ancient  privilege  to  make  laws  and  judge  criminals  ;  but 
suffered  them  to  retain  that  of  electing  magistrates  :  Tiberius, 
however,  took  this  power  also  into  his  own  hands. 

How  many  Roman  emperors  were  there  ?  Sixty  :  Augustus 
was  the  first,  and  Augustulus  the  last.  What  period  of  time 
was  called  the  Augustan  age  ?  Augustus  Caesar's  reign  :  the 
distinguished  writers  were  Cicero,  Livy,  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid, 
and  Varro.  Vitruvius,  the  celebrated  Roman  architect,  lived 
then.  Which  were  the  best  Roman  emperors  ?  Augustus, 
Vespasian,  Titus,  Nerva,  Trajan,  Adrian,  Antoninus,  Marcus 
Aurelius,  Pertinax,  Alexander  Severus,  Claudius  II.,  Tacitus, 
and  Constantine  the  Great.  What  emperors  were  noted  for 
their  vices  ?  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Nero,  Otho,  Vitellius,  Domi- 
tian,  Commodus,  and  Heliogabalus.  Who  was  emperor  when 
Christ  was  born  ?  Augustus  Caesar.  Who  was  emperor  when 
Christ  suffered  death  ?  Tiberius,  remarkable  for  the  incon- 
sistency of  his  character,  and  his  dissolute  way  of  life.  When 
was  Christianity  introduced  in  Rome  ?  Thirty  years  after  the 
death  of  Christ.  What  emperors  persecuted  the  Christians  ? 
Kero,  Domitian,  Trajan,  Adrian,  Severus,  Maximinus,  Decius, 

8* 


90  THE  JEWISH  CAPTIVITY. 

Valerian,  Aurelian,  Diociesian,  and  Julian,  surnamed  the  Apos- 
tate ;  this  prince  was  brought  up  in  the  Christian  iaith,  but  at 
the  age  of  twenty-four  was  induced  by  the  sophist  Libanus,  at 
Athens,  to  renounce  the  religion  of  those  who  had  massacred 
his  family,  and  embrace  paganism..  What  Roman  emperor 
ordered  himself  to  be  worshipped  as-  a  god  ?  Cahgula ;  but  the 
Jews  refused  to  obey  the  mandate  :  this  was  the  monster  who 
wished  his  people  had  but  one  neck,  that  he  might  destroy  them 
at  a  blow.  What  Roman  emperor  set  fire  to  his  own  capital, 
and  afterwards  laughed  at  the  calamity  he  had  caused  ?  Nero : 
this  unaccountably  cruel  prince  possessed  splendid  abilities,  and 
received  an  accomphshed  education.  He  poisoned  Britannicus, 
put  his  own  mother  to  death,  and  caused  Seneca,  Lucan,  and 
others  to  be  assassinated :  he  appeared  publicly  as  a  mounte- 
bank, played  on  the  violin,  sang,  and  contended  in  the  chariot- 
race  ;  he  was  a  persecutor  of  Christians  also ;  he  destroyed 
himself  a.  d.  68.  When  was  Jerusalem  levelled  with  the 
ground  ?  In  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  emperor  of  the  Romans, 
by  Titus,  his  son,  a.  d.  10.  Why  did  God  permit  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  his  favored  city  ?  On  account  of  the  great 
wickedness  and  repeated  acts  of  impiety  shown  by  the  Jews, 
without  the  slightest  symptoms  of  repentance.  What  occa- 
sioned the  animosities  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  ?  A 
difference  in  rehgious  opinions  respecting  the  place  where  God 
had  appointed  an  altar  to  be  erected :  both  Jews  and  Samaritans 
contested  the  point ;  the  Jews  declaring  that  God  would  be 
worshipped  only  in  Jerusalem  ;  the  Samaritans,  who  were  de- 
scended from  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  who  had 
mingled  with  the  Assyrian  colonists,  that  in  Samaria  also  he 
made  his  presence  known ;  and  they  worshipped  on  Mount  Geri- 
zim.  When  the  Jews,  on  their  return  from  captivity^  were 
about  to  rebuild  the  temple,  tlie  Samaritans  desired  permission 
to  aid  in  the  pious  labor,  but  their  request  was  rejected  by  the 
Jews,  Avho  looked  upon  their  issue  as  mixed  with  heathens ;  and 
hence  also  the  hatred  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour. 

What  has  caused  such  frequent  animosities  between  religious 
sects  ?  Their  bigotry.  What  calamities  have  befallen  the  an- 
cient Jews  ?  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon,  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  and  the  Jews  led  captive 
thither ;  after  the  expiration  of  the  seventy  years'  captivity, 
Cyrus  permitted  them  to  rebuild  their  city,  and  restore  it  to  its 
ancient  splendor.  It  was  forty  years  after  the  death  of  Christ 
W^hen  lltus  destroyed  the  city ;  but  he  endeavored  to  save  the 


CELEBRATED  ROMANS.  91 

temple,  thougli  without  effect.  How  many  Jews  are  computed 
to  have  perished  during  this  siege,  and  its  subsequent  events  ? 
1,100,000  :  those  Jews  who  had  been  instrumental  in  the  re- 
belHon  were  crucified  by  the  emperor's  command  :  11,000  per- 
ished by  hunger,  97,000  were  taken  prisoners,  and  many  of 
them  sent  into  Egypt  as  slaves  ;  some  were  devoured  by  .wild 
beasts,  in  the  public  diversions ;  and  it  is  not  possible  to  con- 
ceive greater  calamities  than  those  this  unfortunate  people  en- 
dured. Who  was  the  last  king  of  the  Jews  ?  Agrippa  II., 
being  dethroned  by  the  emperor  Claudius ;  he  served  in  the 
army  of  Titus,  against  the  very  people  over  whom  he  had 
reigned.  Who  rebuilt  Jerusalem  ?  The  emperor  Adrian  ;  and, 
in  derision  of  the  Jews,  he  caused  a  marble  statue  of  a  hog  to 
be  placed  over  the  principal  gate  of  the  city,  this  animal  being 
the  one  they  have  a  particular  antipathy  to.  The  modern  Je- 
rusalem has  fallen  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians, 
the  Saracens,  the  Christian  powers  engaged  in  the  crusades,  and 
the  Turks,  who  still  keep  possession  of  it.  Who  was  the  fa- 
mous Jewish  historian  ?  Josephus.  Who  was  PHny  the  elder  ? 
A  famous  naturalist,  killed  in  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  : 
he  was  the  friend  of  the  emperor  Titus.  When  were  the  greatest 
cruelties  inflicted  upon  the  Christians  ?  In  the  reigns  of  Do- 
mitian  and  Dioclesian.  Who  was  Agricola  ?  The  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  South  Britain,  in  the  time  of  Domitian  ;  he  built  a  line 
of  forts  between  the  rivers  Forth  and  Clyde,  to  defend  the 
Britons  from  the  inroads  of  the  Scots,  whom  he  defeated  on  the 
Grampian  Mountains.  Who  was  Tacitus  ?  A  Roman  historian, 
one  of  the  greatest  orators  and  statesmen  of  his  time.  Who 
was  the  first  Christian  emperor  ?  Constantine  the  Great ;  fif- 
teen emperors,  all  professing  Christianity,  succeeded  him.  What 
city  was  anciently  called  Byzantium  ?  Constantinople ;  the 
emperor  Constantine  the  Great  removed  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment thither,  that  he  might  be  nearer  the  Persians,  whose  power 
then  began  to  be  formidable  to  the  Romans.  What  nations 
enslaved  the  Romans,  after  the  time  of  the  emperor  Constantine  ? 
The  Goths  and  Vandals.  Were  the  morals  of  the  Romans 
better  under  the  imperial,  or  republican  form  of  government  ? 
Under  the  latter.  When  was  the  imperial  power  in  the  most 
flourishing  state  ?  In  the  reign  of  Trajan.  Who  was  Justinian? 
A  Roman  emperor,  famed  for  collecting  the  Roman  laws  into 
one  body,  called  the  Code,  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name. 
Who  was  Belisarius  ?  A  Roman  general,  who  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  emperor  of  the  east,  a.  d.  561  ;  after  performing 
the  greatest  services  fo   his  country,  he  was  unjustly  deprived 


92  ROMAN  AUTHORS. 

of  all  liis  dignities,  and  is  said  to  have  had  his  eyes  put  out. 
What  occasioned  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  power  ?  Its  fall 
was  owing  to  the  luxury  and  corruption  of  the  people,  when  the 
empire  became  too  extensive.  Who  first  laid  the  Roman  power 
prostrate?  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  410  years  after  Christ. 
What  prince  was  called  the  scourge  of  God,  the  destroyer  of 
nations  ?  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  because  he  ravaged  and 
destroyed  the  Roman  empire.  Name  the  chief  Italian  curiosi- 
ties, natural  and  artificial.  The  amphitheatres,  one  at  Rome, 
the  other  at  Verona ;  the  triumphal  arches  of  Yespasian,  Sev- 
erus,  and  Constantino  the  Great;  the  pillars  of  Trajan  and 
Antoninus  ;  the  roads  made  by  the  consuls  Appius,  Flaminius, 
and  ^milius ;  the  Pantheon,  anciently  a  temple,  dedicated  to 
the  heathen  gods ;  the  catacombs ;  mounts  Etna  and  Vesuvius ; 
the  ruins  of  the  city  of  Herculaneum,  almost  destroyed  in  Nero's 
time  by  an  earthquake,  and  totally  covered  by  the  lava,  in  the 
reign  of  Titus,  and  the  city  of  Pompeii  destroyed  at  the  same 
time.  Why  are  the  fine  arts  neglected  in  Italy,  which  was 
famous  for  encouraging  them  ?  Because  the  modern  Italians 
are  sunk  in  ecclesiastical  slaveiy,  and  weakened  by  luxury  and 
sensual  pleasures. 

Name  the  most  distinguished  literary  characters  in  the  reign 
of  Tiberius.  Valerius  Maximus,  the  compiler  of  memorable 
stories  and  events ;  Velleius  Paterculus,  the  writer  of  the  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  history,  from  the  defeat  of  Persius,  king  of 
Macedon,  by  the  Romans,  to  the  sixth  year  of  Tiberius.  What 
learned  men  flourished  under  the  reign  of  Caligula  ?  Few : 
Caligula  declared  open  war  upon  the  Muses,  banished  the  works 
of  Virgil  and  Livy  from  the  public  hbraries,  and  would  scarcely 
allow  Homer  better  treatment ;  Seneca,  and  in  short,  all  men  of 
eminent  virtue  and  learning,  were  his  aversion ;  Apion,  the 
grammarian,  however,  lived  in  his  reign  ;  and  Philo  Juda3us,  a 
Jewish  writer  upon  moral  philosophy.  What  great  men  flour- 
ished in  the  reign  of  Nero  ?  Seneca  ;  Lucan,  the  poet ;  Per- 
sius, the  satirist ;  Epictetus,  the  moralist ;  and  Petroniua 
j^.rbiter,  a  Roman  writer,  whose  opinions  were  openly  Epicu- 
rean. 

Name  some  authors  in  the  reign  o»  Domitian.  Martial,  the 
writer  of  epigrams  ;  Juvenal,  the  satirist ;  Josephus,  the  Jewish 
historian  and  antiquarian  ;  and  Quintilian,  the  celebrated  in- 
structor of  youth.  Name  some  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  Plu- 
tarch, the  biographer ;  Pliny  the  Younger,  who  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  consul ;  Suetonius,  who  wrote  the  lives  of  the 
twelve  Caesars ;  and  Tacitus,  the  historian.     Name  some  great 


DECAY    OF    LEARNING.  93 

men  in  the  reign  of  Adrian.  Ptolemy,  the  geographer  and 
astronomer ;  Arrian,  the  liistorian ;  Aiilus  Gelhus,  the  learned 
author  of  Attic  Nights.  Name  some  learned  men  in  the  reign 
of  Antoninus  Pius.  Galen,  the  physician  ;  Justin,  the  histo- 
rian ;  -^lian,  the  natural  philosopher  ;  and  Diogenes  of  Laertes, 
the  Epicurean  philosopher  and  biographer.  Who  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  ?  Justin  Martyr,  the  Christian 
apologist,  and  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna ;  they  both  suffered 
martyrdom :  Hermogenes,  the  rhetorician,  and  Lucian,  the  cele- 
brated Greek  critic  and  satirist,  flourished.  Who  flourished 
under  the  emperor  Severus  ?  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  Ter- 
tullian,  celebrated  fathers  of  the  primitive  Christian  church,  the 
latter  also  an  elegant  Latin  writer  ;  and  Minutius  Felix,  the 
Roman  orator  and  writer  in  defence  of  Christianity.  Name  some 
writer  in  the  reign  of  Hehogabalus.  Origen  of  Alexandria,  one 
of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  who  defended  the  Christian  reli- 
gion against  the  attacks  of  Celsus,  the  Epicurean  philosopher. 
Name  some  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Alexander.  Dion  Cas- 
sius,  the  historian  of  the  Roman  History,  written  in  Greek. 
Who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  the  (jmperor  Decius  ?  Plotinus, 
the  celebrated  Platonic  philosopher,  born  in  Egypt,  but  a  resi- 
dent in  Rome ;  and  Cyprian,  the  ornament  of  the  Afiican 
church.  Name  some  famous  characters  in  the  reign  of  Quin- 
tillus.  Longinus,  the  celebrated  critic  and  counsellor  of  the 
unhappy  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra ;  he  was  beheaded  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Aurelian,  a.  d.  275 ;  and  Porphyry,  the 
Jewish  philosophical  writer.  Porphyry  was  originally  a  Chris- 
tian convert,  but  afterwards  an  apostate  :  from  this  period  (the 
latter  end  of  the  third  centurv)  few  writers  of  note  appeared  in 
the  Roman  empire,  excepting  the  Christian  fathers ;  the  con- 
tinual irruptions  of  tlie  nortliern  nations  introduced  new  lan- 
guages, new  customs  ;  these  turbulent  times  were  little  calcu  • 
lated  for  the  cultivation  of  literary  talents,  and  after  the  Goths 
and  Vandals  had  overrun  the  empire,  a  night  of  mental  dark- 
ness followed,  from  the  tenth  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteentb 
century. 


^•^  ENGLISH   LINES    OP    KINGS. 

ENGLISH    QUESTIONS, 

CHRONOLOGICALLY  ARRANGED, 

FROM  THE  INVASION  OF  CJISAR. 

TO  THE   PRESENT  TIME. 

In  statesmen  thou. 
And  patriots  fertile. 

Thobikn. 

Name  the  six  grand  epochs  in  the  history  of  England.  The 
introduction  of  Christianity — the  Norman  conquest — the  signing 
Magna  Charta,  (which  laid  the  foundation  of  English  hberty,) — 
the  reformation — the  restoration — and  the  revolution.  To  this 
enumeration  may  be  added  the  enactment  of  the  Reform  Bill  in 
1832,  by  which  the  elective  franchise  was  extended,  many  old 
boroughs  disfranchised,  and  populous  places  admitted  to  a 
share  in  the  representation.  When  was  Christianity  introduced 
into  England  ?  Sixty-three  years  after  the  death  of  Christ  ? 
What  was  the  Reformation  ?  A  change  from  the  Catholic  to 
the  Protestant  opinions,  first  set  on  foot  in  Germany,  by  Lu- 
ther, but  had  been  previously  begun  in  England  by  Wickliffe, 
and  completed  by  Henry  VIII.,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Head 
of  the  Church.  When  was  the  reformation  begun  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland  ?  In  Ireland,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  in  Scot- 
land, in  that  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  by  John  Knox,  the 
reformer.  What  gave  rise  to  the  reformation  in  this  and  foreign 
countries  ?  The  general  sale  of  indulgences,  or  pardons  for 
sins,  and  the  abandoned  hves  of  the  clergy.  What  was  the 
Restoration  ?  Restoring  the  kingly  power,  in  the  person  of 
Charles  II.,  after  the  death  of  OUver  Cromwell.  What  w^as 
the  Revolution?  A  change  in  the  constitution,  which  took 
place  on  the  accession  of  William  III.  What  two  great  ad- 
vantages did  England  gain  by  the  revolution  ?  The  present 
constitution  was  firmly  established,  and  the  famous  bill  of  rights 
passed.  What  is  meant  by  the  constitution  of  England  ?  Its 
laws  and  government.  What  was  the  Bill  of  Rights  ?  A  bill 
passed  in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  to  confirm  and  secure  the 
liberties  of  the  people. 

Name  the  English  lines  of  kings.     Saxon,  Danish,  Norman, 


DRUIDICAL  CEREMONIES.  95 

Plantagenet,  Tudor,  Stuart,  Orange  or  Nassau,  and  tliat  of 
Hanover  or  Brunswick.  How  many  princes  Avere  there  of  each 
hne  ?  Seventeen  Saxons,  three  Danes,  four  Normans,  fourteen 
Plantagenets,  five  Tudors,  six  Stuarts,  one  Orange  or  Nassau, 
and  six  of  the  line  of  Brunswick.  What  is  the  ancient  name 
for  England  ?  Albion  or  Britannia.  For  France  ?  Gallia  or 
Gaul.  For  Scotland  ?  Caledonia.  For  Ireland  ?  Hibernia. 
For  Wales  ?  Cambria.  For  Holland  ?  Batavia  or  Belgium. 
For  Spain  ?  Iberia.  For  Portugal  ?  Lusitania.  For  Sweden 
and  Denmark  ?  Scandinavia.  For  Poland  ?  Lithuania.  For 
Switzerland  ?  Helvetia.  By  whom  were  the  Britons  first 
conquered  ?  By  the  Romans  :  Julius  Caesar  first  attempted 
this  conquest,  and  the  succeeding  emperors  finally  achieved  it. 
Who  were  the  Druids  ?  Priests  of  Britain,  whose  principal 
residence  was  in  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  where  they  performed 
their  idolatrous  worship,  and  were  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  people.  How  were  the  Druids  clothed  when  they  sacri- 
ficed ?  In  long  white  garments  ;  they  wore  on  their  heads  the 
tiara  or  sacred  crown,  their  temples  were  encircled  with  a 
wreath  of  oak  leaves,  they  waved  in  their  hands  a  magic  Avand, 
and  also  placed  upon  their  heads  a  serpent's  egg,  as  an  ensign 
of  their  order.  What  plant  did  the  Druids  hold  in  high  esti- 
mation, and  what  traces  have  we  of  their  places  of  worship  ? 
They  reverenced  the  mistletoe,  and  their  altars  or  temples  called 
Cromlechs  may  still  be  seen,  as  well  as  the  rude  chairs  of  the 
arch-druid,  the  sacred  circle,  and  the  sacrificing  stones,  on 
which  it  is  probable  human  victims  were  immolated.  What 
became  of  the  Druids  ?  Numbers  of  them  were  put  to  death 
by  the  emperor  Nero's  command,  when  Britain  became  a  Ro- 
man province.  How  were  public  events  transmitted  to  posterity, 
when  the  Britons  were  ignorant  of  printing  and  writing  ?  By 
their  bards  or  poets,  who  were  the  only  depositaries  of  the 
national  events.  What  Roman  emperor  projected  an  invasion 
of  Britain,  gathered  only  shells  upon  the  coast,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  triumph  ?  Caligula.  What  British  generals 
distinguished  themselves  before  the  Saxon  heptarchy  was  form- 
ed ?  Cassibellaunus,  Vortigern,  Caractacus,  and  prince  Arthur, 
renowned  in  story.  What  was  the  exclamation  of  Caractacus, 
when  led  in  triumph  through  Rome  ?  "  How  is  it  possible 
that  a  people  possessed  of  such  magnificence  at  home,  should 
envy  me  an  humble  cottage  in  Britain  ?"  What  queen  poisoned 
herself,  to  avoid  the  insults  of  the  Roman  conqueror  ?  Boadicea, 
queen  of  the  Iceni,  in  Britain.  What  two  Saxon  generals  as- 
sisted in  subduing  England  ?     Hengist  and  Horsa  ;  they  were 


CR5  Peter's  pence. 

brothers :  under  their  domination  tlie  ancient  Britons  wert 
compelled  to  retire  within  Cambria,  or  escape  to  Armorica, 
(Bretagne,)  in  France.  How  was  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  con- 
stituted ?  By  the  union  and  mutual  agreement  of  seven  Saxon 
princes,  to  divide  England  into  seven  different  parts,  and  each 
take  a  share.  Who  was  the  first  Christian  king  in  Britain  ? 
Ethelbert,  fifth  king  of  Kent.  Who  raised  the  first  sole  mon- 
archy upon  the  ruins  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy  ?  Egbert,  king 
of  Wessex,  about  800  years  after  the  death  of  Christ.  When 
did  the  clergy  first  collect  tithes  in  England  ?  In  the  reign  of 
Ethelwolf,  successor  to  Egbert.  What  Saxon  monarch  erected 
a  number  of  monasteries  ?  Ethelbald.  What  gave  rise  to 
monastic  institutions  in  Christendom  ?  The  persecutions  which 
attended  the  first  ages  of  the  gospel  obliged  some  Christians  to 
retire  into  deserts  and  unfrequented  places ;  their  example  gave 
so  much  reputation  and  weight  to  retirement,  that  the  practice 
was  continued  when  the  reason  ceased  to  exist.  Name  the  best 
Saxon  king.  Alfred  the  Great.  What  were  the  remarkable 
events  of  this  reign  ?  He  awoke  anew  the  courage  of  his 
countrymen — attacked  and  expelled  the  Danes — defeated  them 
fit  sea,  and  maintained  himself  in  possession  of  his  kingdom ; 
he  encouraged  learning  and  learned  men,  founded  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  divided  England  into  shires  or  counties :  this 
prince  first  established  a  national  militia,  and  put  the  English 
navy  upon  a  respectable  footing  :  houses  were  built  of  brick  in 
this  reign. 

What  was  Peter's  Pence  ?  An  annual  tribute  of  a  penny, 
(some  say  of  a  shilling,)  paid  by  every  family  in  Britain  to  the 
popes,  on  St.  Peter's  day,  from  the  eighth  century  down  to  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  it  was  at  first  granted  for  the  purpose  of 
repairing  and  preserving  the 'tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
in  the  city  of  Rome ;  and  in  the  thirteenth  centmy  it  exceeded 
the  revenue  of  the  kings  of  England.  When  was  this  tribute 
abolished  ?  At  the  reformation,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
What  was  meant  by  excommunication  ?  A  decree  of  the  popes, 
by  which  they  deprived  the  nation  or  person  excommunicated 
of  all  reliojious  rites,  and  solemnly  gave  them  up  to  the  devil's 
power.  What  Enghsh  princes  have  the  popes  excommunicated  ? 
John,  Henry  VIII.,  and  Elizabeth.  What  is  meant  by  laying 
a  kingdom  under  an  interdict  ?  By  this  the  pope  deprived  the 
nation  of  all  exterior  rites  of  religion,  except  baptism  and  the 
communion  to  the  dying ;  the  people  were  forbidden  the  use  of 
all  meats,  pleasures,  and  entertainments.  What  was  the  trial 
by  Ordeal  ?     This   superstitious   custom  was  anciently  very 


GUY,  EARL  OF  WARWICK.  07 

prevalent  in  Britain :  there  were  three  kinds  of  Ordeal ;  that 
by  fire,  that  by  cold  water,  and  that  by  hot  water.  Describe 
them.  In  that  by  fire,  the  accused  were  to  walk  blindfolded 
and  barefooted  over  nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  placed  at  un- 
equal distances  ;  in  that  by  cold  water,  the  person  accused  was 
bound  hands  and  feet,  thrown  into  a  pond  or  river,  and  was 
then  to  clear  himself  by  escaping  drowning ;  in  that  by  hot 
water,  the  hands  and  feet  were  plunged  into  scalding  water : 
these  ridiculous  customs  were  totally  laid  aside  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  Who  founded  the  University  of  Cambridge  ?  Ed- 
ward the  Elder.  When  did  the  famous  Guy,  Earl  of  Warw.'ck, 
live  ?  In  the  reign  of  Athelstan  :  his  strength  is  said  to  have 
been  matchless.  He  stood  forth  in  single  combat  with  Col- 
brand,  the  grand  champion  of  the  Danes,  in  a  contest  which 
was  to  determine  the  fate  of  the  kingdom,  at  Memhill,  near  the 
walls  of  Winchester,  when  king  Athelstan  was  besieged  :  many 
memorials  are  shown  in  Warwick  castle  and  elsewhere  of  this 
remarkable  person,  but  his  history  is  so  disfigured  by  fable, 
that  it  is  almost  rejected  from  our  national  records.  What 
Saxon  king  w^as  stabbed  by  an  assassin  ?  Edmund,  by  Leolf 
the  robber.  Which  of  the  English  princes  was  stabbed  by 
order  of  his  mother-in-law,  at  Corfe  Castle  ?  Edward,  called 
the  Martyr:  Elfrida,  who  commanded  the  execution  of  this 
treacherous  deed,  was  equally  beautiful  and  wicked.  When 
was  the  general  massacre  of  the  Danes  ?  In  the  reign  of 
Ethelred  II.  Which  of  the  Saxon  monarchs,  after  Alfred,  was 
the  most  valiant  ?  Edmund  Ironside  :  on  the  death  of  Ethelred 
he  took  the  field  against  Canute,  the  Danish  king,  and  sustained 
a  defeat  at  Assingham,  in  Essex,  in  consequence  of  the  defection 
of  Edric,  Duke  of  Mercia.  A  compromise  was  then  effected, 
which  gave  the  midland  and  northern  counties  to  Canute,  while 
Edmund  was  to  hold  the  southern.  At  the  instigation  of  the 
traitor  Edric  he  was  shortly  after  murdered,  by  two  of  his  ser- 
vants, at  Oxford,  whereby  the  Danish  prince  became  master  of 
the  entire  kingdom.  Which  of  the  kings,  by  a  memorable 
speech,  reproved  the  flattery  of  his  courtiers ;  and  what  was 
the  substance  of  it  ?  Canute  the  Great,  first  of  the  Danish 
line :  he  ordered  his  chair  to  be  placed  upon  the  sea-shore, 
when  the  tide  was  coming  in,  and  commanded  the  sea  to  retire  ; 
he  feigned  to  sit  some  time,  expecting  its  submission,  till  the 
waves  began  to  surround  him,  and  then,  turning  to  his  courtiers, 
he  exclaimed,  "  The  titles  of  lord  and  master  only  belong  to 
him  whom  earth  and  seas  are  ready  to  obey."  When  was 
paper  first  made  ?     In  the  reign  of  Harold,  successor  to  Canute* 


9o  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 

What  is  remarkable  of  Hardicanute  ?  He  was  a  weak  ami 
degenerate  prince  ;  in  him  ended  the  Danish  hne  ;  and  he  died 
by  excess  of  drinking.  What  laws  did  Edward  the  Confessor 
collect  ?  Those  of  the  Danes,  Saxons,  and  Mercians,  which  he 
abridged  and  amended  ;  and  till  the  twentieth  year  of  the  reign 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  they  were  considered  as  the  common 
law  of  England. 

Name  the  principal  events  in  the  time  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. The  battle  of  Hastings,  fought  between  William  and 
Harold,  when  the  latter  was  killed  ;  Doomsday  Book  compiled ; 
the  Curfew  Bell  established ;  sheriffs  appointed ;  the  New  For- 
est in  Hampshire  enlarged,  to  effect  which  thirty-six  parish 
churches  were  destroyed ;  the  feudal  law  introduced  ;  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  over  the  see  of  York 
confirmed  at  a  national  synod ;  Norman  French  introduced  in 
all  pleadings  in  the  supreme  courts,  a  custom  continued  until 
the  reign  of  Edward  III. ;  and  the  foundation  of  the  Tower 
of  London  laid  by  the  king,  who  granted  to  the  city  of  London 
their  first  charter.  What  was  Doomsday  Book  ?  An  account 
of  the  value  of  every  man's  estate,  the  number  of  cattle  and 
servants  upon  it :  the  Down  survey  in  Ireland  is  analogous  in 
its  uses  to  this  ancient  record.  What  was  the  Curfew  Bell  ? 
A  bell  ordered  to  be  rung  every  night  at  eight  o'clock,  when 
the  English  were  to  put  out  their  fire  and  candle ;  they  were 
obhged  also,  in  this  reign,  to  give  up  their  arms.  What  was 
meant  by  the  Feudal  Law  ?  Estates  held  by  this  law' were  oc- 
cupied by  men  who  were  obliged  to  assist  the  master  of  the 
estate,  engage  in  his  quarrels,  and  do  to  him  other  actual  ser- 
vices ;  these  men  paid  no  rent :  in  process  of  time  this  law  was 
so  much  abused,  that  when  a  gentleman  sold  his  estate,  the 
farmer  who  lived  upon  it,  his  children,  and  stock  of  cattle, 
were  sold  also.  When  was  the  custom  of  beheading  intro- 
duced ?  By  Wilham  the  Conqueror.  Musical  notes  were  also 
invented  in  this  reign,  by  a  Frenchman.  The  English  were  in 
general  at  this  time  illiterate,  rude,  and  barbarous ;  but  in  this 
century  began  what  is  commonly  termed  the  age  of  chivalry  in 
Europe,  when  anarchy  and  barbarism  were  abolished,  and  civi- 
lization and  politeness  of  manners  first  introduced.  When  was 
Westminster  Hall  built  ?  In  the  reign  of  William  Rufus ;  this 
king  was  noted  for  his  oppressions  and  liis  irreligion.  When 
were  the  first  crusades,  or  holy  wars  ?  •  In  the  reign  of  William 
Eufus ;  they  were  undertaken  by  the  Christian  nations  of  the 
West,  to  rescue  Jerusalem  and  the  tomb  of  our  Saviour  from 
the  hajida  of  the  Saracens  and  Turks,  who  were  infidels ;  they 


FIRST  OF  THE   FhAN'L'AGKSStj  l  b.  99 

w*»re  carried  on  from  the  end  of  the  eleventh  to  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Who  was  the  famous  Saladin,  or  Salahed- 
din?  A  sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  successor  of  king  Nou- 
reddin,  born  at  Tecnib,  in  1137.  He  besieged  and  took  Jeru- 
salem, made  Guy  de  Lusignan  prisoner,  and  slew  Chatillon  with 
his  own  hand  on  the  piams  of  Tiberias ;  this  famous  victory, 
and  his  subsequent  reduction  of  Jerusalem,  were  the  immediate 
occasions  of  the  first  crusade :  Saladin  was  magnificent  in  his 
public  undertakings,  frugal  in  his  private  expenses ;  he  was  a 
fanatic  in  religion,  but  faithful  to  his  promises :  his  hatred  of 
the  Christian  name  arose  from  the  atrocious  massacre  of  Mo- 
hammedan pilgrims  by  the  French  Lord  Du  Challon,  which 
Saladin  had  pledged  himself  to  revenge.  At  this  period  was 
founded  the  military  order  of  Mamelukes,  so  called  from  the 
Arabic  word  memelik,  a  slave:  at  first  12,000  slaves  were  em- 
bodied in  a  corps,  chiefly  Turks  from  Chapchak,  who  gradually 
acquired  power  and  influence  until  the  year  1254,  when  they 
placed  Ibegh,  one  of  their  number,  on  the  throne  of  Egypt : 
their  dominion  was  terminated  by  feelim  I.,  in  15lT.  The  whole 
race  was  exterminated  in  one  hour,  by  Mehemet  Ali,  Pacha  of 
Egypt,  in  1835. 

Who  made  the  first  king's  speech  upon  record  ?  Henry  I. ; 
he  was  surnamed  Beau  Clerc,  on  account  of  his  great  learning. 
What  was  meant  by  Knights  Templars  ?  This  was  a  military 
order  of  knighthood,  instituted  in  the  time  of  Henry  I.,  to 
defend  the  temple  and  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem ;  also 
Christian  strangers  from  the  assaults  of  infidels.  Which  of  the 
English  kings  was  Earl  of  Blois?  Stephen,  grandson  to  Wil- 
ham  the  Conqueror,  by  his  daughter  Adela ;  his  father  Stephen, 
Earl  of  Blois,  fell  in  the  crusades  against  the  Saracens :  Stephen 
usurped  the  English  throne.  Which  of  them  was  Earl  of  An- 
jou  ?  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  Plantagenets  :  the  loadstone's 
attractive  power,  glass  windows,  and  surnames,  were  first  known 
in  his  reign. 

Who  was  prime  minister  to  Henry  II.  ?  Thomas  a  Becket, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury:  Becket  being  murdered  by  king 
Henry's  instigation,  the  king  consented  to  perform  penance  at 
his  tomb,  to  humor  the  superstition  of  the  people,  who  believed 
him  to  be  a  saint,  as  he  had  been  canonized  by  the  church  of 
Rome  :  the  famous  Earl  of  Pembroke  lived  in  this  reign.  What 
king  was  crowned  twice,  and  taken  prisoner  in  Germany  on  his 
return  from  the  Holy  Land  ?  Richard  I.,  surnamed  Coeur  de 
Lion  on  account  of  his  valor :  Richard  first  assumed  the  motto 
of  "  God  and  my  right,"  and  affixed  it  to  his  arms :  a  total 


100  MAGNA    CHARTA. 

eclipse  of  the  sun  happened  in  this  reign,  when  the  stars  were 
visible  at  ten  in  the  morning :  wheat  was  sold  at  £6  per  quar- 
ter :  two  suns  appeared,  which  were  only  to  be  distinguished 
by  the  aid  of  instruments :  sheriffs  or  bailiflfs  were  appointed : 
and  companies  or  societies  first  estabHshed  in  this  reign.  When 
did  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John  Hve  ?  In  the  time  of  Richard 
[. ;  Robin  Hood  was  said  to  be  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  and 
outlawed  for  some  misdemeanors  committed  at  court,  upon 
which  he  and  his  attendant,  Little  John,  concealed  themselves 
in  Sherwood  Forest,  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  lived  by  plunder. 
What  action  of  Richard  I.  does  history  record  most  in  favor  of 
his  noble  way  of  thinking  ?  The  pardon  of  his  brother  John, 
after  repeated  treasons :  he  then  said,  "  I  forgive  you,  and  wish 
I  could  as  easily  forget  your  injuries,  as  you  will  my  pardon." 
Which  of  the  Enghsh  kings  was  called  Sans  Terre,  or  Lack- 
land? John:  he  put  out  the  eyes  of  his  nephew,  Arthur, 
duke  of  Bretagne,  who  was  the  nearest  in  succession  to  the 
throne,  and  afterwards  threw  him  down  a  precipice  :  astronomy, 
chemistry,  and  distillery,  were  first  common  in  Europe  in  this 
reign.  Who  signed  Magna  Charta  ?  John :  before  he  was 
prevailed  upon  to  sign  this  he  surrendered  his  crown  to  the 
pope,  consenting  to  hold  it  afterwards  tributary  to  Rome,  on 
condition  that  the  pope  should  accommodate  a  quarrel  between 
John  and  Philip  H.,  king  of  France.  What  was  Magna  Charta  ? 
A  bill,  or  act  of  parhament,  granting  the  barons  and  citizens 
greater  privileges  than  they  had  ever  enjoyed  before  :  by  this 
act,  which  was  passed  a.  d.  1205,  the  obligation  of  the  fedual 
law  was  abolished,  and  English  freedom  restored.  Who  after- 
wards revoked  Magna  Charta  ?  John's  son,  Henry  HI. ;  but 
the  people  at  length  Dbliged  him  to  confirm  it  in  every  point. 
When  was  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  first  instituted,  and 
when  were  aldermen  appointed  ?  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III. : 
the  first  regular  parliaments  were  called  by  Henry  ;  this  is  one 
of  the  longest  reigns  recorded,  extending  to  fifty-six  years,  and 
only  exceeded  by  that  of  George  III.,  which  lasted  fifty-nine 
years. 

When  was  marriage  first  solemnized  in  churches  ?  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  III. :  magnifying  glasses  and  magic  lanterns 
were  also  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  the  monk.  \Vhat  other 
improvements  were  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  ? 
Cidsr,  linen,  and  tapestry  were  first  made  in  England,  and  the 
seaman's  compass  said  to  be  invented  by  the  French ;  but  there 
Are  such  various  opinions  concerning  the  inventor,  and  the  time 
aS.  this  discovery  being  made,  that  nothing  conclusive  can  bo 


MASSACRE  OF  THE  W,E1:^h;  BAilt«.'!    ;  '    '   ]    ,  '■  iQtp 

said  upon  it.  When  was  the  Inquisition  established  ?  In  the 
time  of  Henry  III.  What  was  the  Inquisition  ?  A  cruel  court, 
composed  of  monks  and  friars,  appointed  to  take  cognizance  of 
every  thing  supposed  to  be  heretical,  or  contrary  to  the  estab- 
lished religion,  and  to  pronounce  its  dreadful  sentence  against 
the  future  honor  and  lives  of  individuals  without  appeal ;  its 
plan  was  conceived  by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  and  its  courts  were 
established  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  In  the  year  1481,  the 
Dominican  monastery  at  Seville  was  insufficient  to  contain  the 
numerous  prisoners,  and  the  king  removed  the  court  to  the 
spacious  castle  of  Triana.  At  the  first  Atito  da  fe,  (act  of 
faith,)  seven  apostate  Christians  were  burnt  by  order  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  a  number  of  penitents  obtained  by  torture. 
Spanish  writers  relate  that  at  one  period,  to  avoid  torture 
17,000  persons  surrendered  themselves  to  the  Inquisition,  of 
which  number  2,000  were  condemned  to  the  flames,  and  a 
greater  number  effected  their  escape  to  neighboring  countries. 
This  infamous  tribunal  continued  to  be  a  powerful  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  the  human  intellect,  until  the  moment  when  it  was 
abolished  by  Napoleon,  4th  Dec,  1808.  The  total  number  of 
victims  to  the  cruelty  of  the  Inquisition,  from  the  year  1481  to 
1808,  amounted  to  341,021 ;  of  these,  some  were  burnt,  others 
strangled,  the  rest  imprisoned  for  life.  What  best  promotes  a 
liberal  way  of  thinking  ?  A  thorough  knowledge  of  ourselves, 
and  a  candid  allowance  for  the  faults  of  others. 

What  were  the  discoveries  and  improvements  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  ?  Geography  and  the  use  of  the  globes  were  intro- 
duced ;  tallow  candles  and  coals  were  first  common ;  windmills 
invented ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  wine  was  sold  only  as  a 
cordial,  in  apothecaries'  shops.  What  accident  did  Euward  I. 
meet  with,  while  m  the  Holy  Land  ?  He  Avas  wounded  there 
by  a  poisoned  arrow ;  but  his  faithful  queen,  Eleanora,  is  said 
to  have  suck3d  th  3  poison  from  the  wound,  and  restored  him  to 
health :  at  the  death  of  this  queen,  many  years  after,  Edward 
erected  stone  crosses  at  every  place  where  her  corpse  rested  on 
its  way  to  interment;  the  remains  of  some  of  these  are  still 
visible — that  at  Waltham  Cross,  in  Hertford,  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful as  well  as  most  perfect :  this  prince  was  surnamed  Long- 
shanks,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  his  legs.  What  king 
is  said  to  have  inhumanly  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Welsh  bards  ?  Edward  I. :  after  the  conquest  of  Wales,  and 
the  death  of  Llewellyn,  its  last  prince  of  Welsh  extraction ;  he 
and  David,  his  brother,  were  cruelly  beheaded,  and  their  bodies 
treated  with  the  greatest  indignity.     Who  was  William  Wal- 

9* 


3t,0&  BATTIES  OV.CRESSY  AND  POICTIERS 

lace  ?  A  famous  Scottish  hero,  wlio,  in  the  time  of  Edward  I., 
bravely  endeavored  to  defend  the  hberties  of  his  country  against 
the  Enghsh.  What  became  of  him  ?  He  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Falkirk,  in  1298,  and  shortly  after  being  taken  prisoner, 
through  the  treachery  of  Sir  John  Monteith,  was  conveyed  to 
London,  and  there  suffered  the  death  of  a  traitor,  27th  August, 
1305.  Who  first  bestowed  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales  upon 
his  eldest  son  ?  Edward  I.,  to  reconcile  the  Welsh  to  their 
subjection.  When  was  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  fought  with 
the  Scots  ?  In  the  reign  of  Edward  II. :  the  English  lost  it. 
Name  the  chief  favorites  of  Edward  II.  Gaveston  and  the  two 
De  Spencers.  When  was  tiie  order  of  Knights  Templars  abol- 
ished? In  the  time  of  Edward  II.  Why?  Because  many 
of  the  knights  were  charged  with  high  crimes  and  misdemean- 
ors; fifty-nine  of  them  residing  in  France,  with  their  grand- 
master, were  arrested  and  burnt  alive.  Who  was  king  of  Scot- 
land in  this  reign  ?  Robert  Bruce,  celebrated  for  his  valor  and 
fortitude.  What  remarkable  events  afflicted  England  at  this 
time  ?  A  dreadful  famine,  which  continued  three  years,  and 
the  most  severe  earthquake  ever  known  in  Britain.  What  death 
did  Edward  11.  suffer?  He  was  dethroned,  and  afterwards 
cruelly  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle,  Gloucestershire. 

Name  the  most  remarkable  events  in  the  reign  of  EdAvard 
III.  The  battles  of  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  (the  former  gained 
by  the  Black  Prince  alone,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,)  the  siege  of 
Calais,  the  institution  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  and  the  battle 
of  Neville's  Cross,  in  which  David  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Philippa,  Edward's  queen :  the  invention  of 
gunpowder,  by  Swartz,  a  monk  of  Cologne,  a.  d.  1330:  the 
art  of  weaving  cloth  brought  into  England  from  Flanders,  and 
copper  money  first  used  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  painting 
in  oil  invented  by  John  Van  Eyck.  What  riband  do  the  Knights 
of  the  Garter  wear  ?  A  blue  riband  :  it  is  esteemed  the  most 
honorable  order  of  any  the  English  have.  Name  the  great 
men  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The  Black  Prince,  John, 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  and  the  Duke  of 
York.  What  was  the  character  and  fate  of  the  Black  Prince  ? 
He  was  valiant,  prudent,  and  accomplished ;  he  died  in  the 
prime  of  life,  of  a  consumption,  regretted  by  all.  It  has  been 
remarked,  that  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  though  so 
nearly  allied  to  royalty,  never  ascended  the  throne,  being  the 
Bon  of  Edward  III.,  the  father  of  Henry  IV.,  and  the  uncle  of 
Richard  II. ;  so,  also,  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  son  of  George 
i.11.,  father  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  brother  of  George  and  WU- 


HENRY  IV.  ,  103 

liam  IV".,  never  ascended  the  throne.  Upon  ^^hat  grounds  did 
Edward  III.  assert  his  claims  to  the  French  monarchy?  In 
right  of  his  mother,  Isabella,  who  was  sister  to  the  late  king  of 
France.  What  law  destroyed  this  claim?  The  Salic  Law. 
What  gave  rise  to  the  Sahc  Law  in  France  ?  The  Sahi :  the 
original  inhabitants  had  a  law  which  excluded  females  from  the 
mheritance  of  any  landed  possession ;  the  Franks  or  French 
adopted  this  rule,  and  applied  it  to  the  succession  of  the  throne, 
excluding  women  from  sovereign  power.  Name  some  dis- 
coveries and  improvements  made  in  the  time  of  Edward  III. 
Gold  was  first  coined,  cannon  used,  turnpikes  and  clocks  intro- 
duced, and  the  woollen  manufacture  first  established,  Windsor 
Castle  built.  Trinity  Sunday  first  observed,  the  first  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons  chosen,  and  the  title  of  esquire  given 
to  people  of  fortune.  What  king  caused  his  uncle,  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  to  be  privately  smothered  at  Calais  ?  Richard 
II. ;  to  rid  himself  of  a  monitor  whom  he  feared.  By  whom 
was  the  Poll  Tax  first  levied  ?  By  Richard  II.  What  was  it  ? 
A  tax  of  one  shilling,  ordered  to  be  paid  by  every  person  above 
fifteen  ;  it  occasioned  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  because  the 
rich  paid  no  more  than  the  poor.  Who  headed  this  insurrec- 
tion ?  Wat  Tyler  and  Jack  Straw,  two  of  the  common  people; 
it  was  with  some  difficulty  quelled.  What  two  great  noblemen 
did  Richard  II.  banish  ?  The  Dukes  of  Hereford  and  Norfolk ; 
but  Hereford  returned  with  an  army  before  the  expiration  of 
his  banishment,  and  deprived  Richard  of  his  crown  and  life. 
Where  did  Richard  end  his  days  ?  In  Pontefract  Castle,  where 
he  was  starved,  or,  as  some  say,  assassinated.  What  were  the 
improvements  in  this  reign  ?  The  manufactory  of  woollen  broad- 
cloth was  carried  to  great  perfection,  side-saddles  and  spec- 
tacles first  became  common  in  England,  and  cards  were  invented 
in  France.  For  whom  were  cards  invented  ?  For  Charles  VI., 
king  of  France,  called  the  Well-beloved  ;  he  was  insane  the 
greatest  part  of  his  reign ;  and  during  his  intervals  of  reason, 
cards  were  produced  as  an  amusement. 

When  was  the  office  of  Champion  of  England  first  instituted  ? 
In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  What  has  the  Champion  to  do  ? 
On  the  king's  coronation  day,  he  rides  up  to  Westminster  Hall  on 
a  white  horse,  proclaiming  the  sovereign  by  his  usual  titles ;  he 
then  throws  down  a  gauntlet,  (or  iron  glove,)  challenging  any 
one  to  take  it  up  and  fight  him,  who  does  not  believe  the 
monarch  then  present  to  be  lawful  heir  to  the  crown.  This 
office  is  hereditary  in  the  Dymock  family.  Who  was  the  first 
king  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  ?     Henry  IV.,  surnamed  of  Bo" 


104  HENRY  V. — HENRY  VI. 

lingbroke ;  he  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  and  bom  in  1367.  When  was  the  battle  of  Otter- 
bourne  ?  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. :  Owen  Glandwr  and 
Harry  Hotspur  flourished  at  this  period ;  the  former  was  a 
valiant  Welshman — the  latter,  son  to  the  earl  of  Northumber- 
land ;  from  his  ardent  valor  he  derived  his  name.  What  dis- 
tinguished characters  lived  in  this  reign  ?  Chaucer  and  Gower, 
both  English  poets  ;  and  William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester. Who  was  Wickhffe  ?  A  reformer,  patronized  by 
John  of  Gaunt ;  he  has  the  merit  of  being  the  first  to  protest 
openly  against  the  errors  of  the  Roman  church,  and  was  famed 
for  his  learning  and  piety.  What  order  of  knighthood  did  Henry 
IV.  institute  ?  That  of  the  Bath  in  1399  :  the  knights  wear  a 
red  riband.  It  was  revived  in  1815,  in  George  III.'s  reign,  by 
the  Prince  Regent.  The  other  British  orders  are, — of  the  Gar- 
ter, Grand  Cross,  of  the  Thistle,  of  St.  Patrick  :  the  decorations 
of  knighthood  are  a  collar  and  riband.  Who  gained  the  battles 
of  Harfleur  and  Agincourt  ?  Henry  V.,  sumamed  of  Monmouth : 
they  were  fought  against  the  French  ;  Henry  was  afterwards, 
by  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  declared  heir  to  the  French  monarchy, 
and  regent  of  France  and  Normandy.  When  were  the  followers 
of  Wicklifie  first  severely  persecuted  ?  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
V. ;  Lord  Cobham  was  one  of  the  first  martyrs  to  this  cause :  he 
excited  the  resentment  of  the  clergy  by  transcribing  and  dis- 
tributing the  works  of  WicklifFe  amongst  the  people  in  St. 
Giles's  fields ;  and  they  in  consequence  circulated  a  report, 
which  they  caused  to  be  made  known  to  the  king,  that  Lord 
Cobham,  at  the  head  of  20,000  Lollards,  was  marching  to 
destroy  him,  upon  which  a  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  against 
him.  What  death  did  he  suffer  ?  He  was  roasted  before  a 
slow  fire,  A.  D.  1417,  because  he  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  opinions.  What  happened  to  Henry  V.  when 
PriHce  of  Wales  ?  Sir  William  Gascoigne  sent  him  to  prison, 
for  contempt  of  his  authority.  Relate  the  story.  One  of  his 
dissolute  companions  being  brought  before  this  magistrate  for 
some  offence,  Henry,  who  was  present,  was  so  provoked  at  the 
issue  of  the  trial,  that  he  struck  the  judge  in  open  court.  Sir 
William,  fully  sensible  of  the  reverence  due  to  his  authority, 
committed  the  prince  to  prison.  When  the  king  heard  it,  he 
exclaimed,  **  Happy  is  the  king,  who  has  a  subject  endowed 
with  courage  to  execute  the  laws  upon  such  an  offender ;  still 
more  happy  in  having  a  son  wiUing  to  submit  to  such  chastise- 
ment." 
Kame  the  three  principal  events  im  the  reign  of  Henry  VI 


EDWARD   IV.  105 

The  civil  wars,  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  the  loss  of  France. 
Why  were  these  civil  wars  engaged  in  ?  Because  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster  contended  for  the  throne  ;  their  divisions 
were  occasioned  by  the  claim  which  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  laid 
to  the  throne,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  of  Lancaster.  What 
are  civil  wars  ?  They  are  wars  between  those  people  who  live 
under  the  same  government,  and  are  more  to  be  held  in  detest- 
ation than  any  other  ;  since  they  can  be  of  no  advantage  to  the 
nation,  but,  on  the  contrary,  cause  endless  divisions,  and  totally 
put  a  stop  to  trade.  Who  was  it  obliged  the  Enghsh  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Orleans  ?  A  young  Frenchwoman,  named  Joan  of 
Arc,  but  called  from  that  event  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  who 
headed  her  countrymen  against  the  generals  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
gained  great  advantages  over  them.  Charles  VII.,  of  France, 
ennobled  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  her  father,  three  brothers,  and 
all  their  descendants,  even  by  the  female  line — and  her  statue 
in  bronze  adorns  one  of  the  squares  of  the  city  she  rescued  from 
the  enemy.  What  French  countries  did  England  formerly  pos- 
sess ?  Bretagne,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Normandy,  Gascony, 
and  Guienne.  When  was  the  battle  of  Wakefield  fought  ?  In 
Henry  VI. 's  reign,  between  the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians :  in 
this  engagement  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  his  son  were  slain. 
What  other  celebrated  battles  were  fought  in  this  reign? 
Those  of  Towton  and  Tewkesbury ;  after  the  latter,  Edward, 
son  of  Henry  VI.,  was  murdered  in  cold  blood  by  Richard, 
Duke  of  Gloucester.  Who  was  Henry  VL's  wife  ?  Margaret 
of  Anjou,  a  woman  of  keen  penetration,  undaunted  spirit,  and 
exquisite  beauty  ;  she  fought  twelve  pitched  battles  in  her  hus- 
band's cause,  but  ambition,  not  affection,  guided  her  actions  :• 
and  wanting  principle,  she  may  engage  our  pity,  but  has  no 
title  to  our  esteem  and  reverence.  What  were  the  discoveries 
and  improvements  in  this  reign  ?  The  Azores  and  Cape  Verd 
Islands  were  discovered  :  the  Vatican  library  founded  in  Rome : 
caps  and  jewels  were  first  worn,  and  pumps  invented.  In 
Henry's  time  the  first  national  debt  was  incurred.  What  is  the 
national  debt  ?  Money  borrowed,  from  year  to  year,  by  govern- 
ment, of  the  nation,  for  which  they  pay  legal  interest  to  the 
lenders.  Name  the  first  king  of  the  house  of  York.  Edward 
IV.  :  in  the  reign  of  this  prince  printing  was  introduced,  and 
polite  literature  encouraged  among  the  English :  Angola  was 
settled  by  the  Portuguese,  violins  were  invented,  and  the  first 
idea  of  electricity  given.  How  did  Edward  IV,  recompense  the 
services  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence  ?  He  caused 
Clarence,  upon  some  slight  accusation,  to  be  drowned  in  a  butt 


106  HENRY  VII. 

of  Malmsey  wine.  What  king  married  Lady  Elizabetli  Grey  ^ 
Edward  IV.  Name  the  most  famous  warrior  at  this  period. 
The  Earl  of  Warwick,  commonly  called  the  king-maker,  because 
he  deposed  and  reinstated  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV.  Name 
some  other  distinguished  Enghsh  generals.  The  Earls  of  Talbot 
and  Sahsbury ;  the  Dukes  of  York,  Bedford,  and  Mortimer. 
What  king  was  smothered  in  the  Tower  by  his  uncle's  order  ? 
Edward  V.  Who  was  his  uncle  ?  Richard  III.,  D  uke  of  Glouces- 
ter, last  of  the  line  of  Plantagenet,  who  succeeded  him  upon  the 
throne.  What  were  the  improvements  in  this  reign  ?  Post- 
horses  and  stages  were  established.  The  Earl  of  Rivers  and 
Lord  Hastings  were  beheaded  in  this  reign.  What  were  Richard 
IIL's  best  public  actions  ?  The  strictness  with  which  he  en- 
forced the  laws,  and  the  establishment  of  the  hardware  manu- 
facture, by  the  prohibition  against  the  importation  of  such  as 
were  not  made  in  England.  When  w^as  the  Herald's  Office  in- 
stituted ?  In  the  reign  of  Richard  HI. :  this  king  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Bosworth  field,  in  defence  of  his  crown,  when 
engaged  against  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards  Henry 
VII. :  Richard  was  the  first  king  who  established  English  con- 
suls abroad :  Horace  Walpole  (in  a  work  called  "  Historic 
Doubts")  has  endeavored  wdth  much  ingenuity  to  rescue  the 
memory  of  Richard  III.  from  the  ignominy  uniformly  attached 
to  it,  and  from  the  imputation  of  having  caused  the  death  of 
Edward  V.  and  his  brother ;  how  successfully,  must  be  left  to 
the  judgment  of  his  readers.  Wten  was  America  discovered  ? 
In  Henry  VII.'s  reign,  by  Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of 
Genoa  ;  Sebastian  Cabot,  another  famous  navigator,  hved  at  this 
period ;  he  was  bom  at  Bristol  about  the  year  1477,  entered 
the  service  of  Spain,  and  discovered  or  revisited  Newfoundland, 
as  well  as  the  most  important  places  in  South  America  ;  he  re- 
turned to  England,  obtained  a  pension  from  the  crown,  and  died, 
leaving  a  high  character  as  a  skilful  navigator  and  man  of 
shining  abihties :  he  was  author  of  a  large  map  of  the  world, 
and  was  the  first  who  noticed  the  variations  of  the  compass. 
When  was  the  rebellion  headed  by  Perkin  ?  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  Who  was  Perkin  ?  An  impostor,  who  pretended 
to  be  the  son  of  Edward  IV. ;  the  prudence  and  sagacity  of 
Henry  defeated  this,  and  many  other  plots  against  his  govern- 
ment. What  were  the  discoveries  and  improvements  in  this 
reign  ?  Shillings  were  first  coined  in  England  ;  Greek  generally 
taught  in  schools  ;  passage  to  the  East  Indies  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  ;  trade  and  commerce  were  greatly  encouraged  with 
foreign  nations ;  and  maps  and  sci  charts  now  began  lo  be 


THE  REFORMATION.  107 

commonly  used  in  England.  What  king  first  assumed  the  title 
of  Majesty  ?  Henry  VIII. :  till  his  reign  the  English  kings 
were  styled  Your  Grace,  or  Your  Highness :  Henry  also  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,  from  the  pope.  Why  ? 
On  account  of  a  book  which  he  published  against  the  opinions 
of  Luther  ;  this  title  the  kings  of  England  still  retain.  In  whose 
person  were  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  united  ?  In  that 
of  Henry  VIII. ;  his  claims  on  both  sides  were  equal,  as  his 
mother  was  of  the  house  of  York,  his  father  of  the  line  of  Lan- 
caster. 

Name  the  most  remarkable  events  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  reformation  was  begun ;  the  battle  of  the  spurs  fought 
between  the  English  and  the  French :  and  the  battle  of  Flodden 
Field,  in  which  James  IV.  king  of  Scotland,  with  the  flower  of 
his  nobility,  fell.  When  did  Luther  and  Calvin  live  ?  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  they  were  two  celebrated  reformers ; 
Luther  was  a  German,  and  Calvin  a  native  of  Picardy.  What 
was  meant  by  a  reformer?  One  who  protested  against  the 
errors  of  the  Roman  church.  In  what  great  points  do  Catho- 
hcs  and  Protestants  differ  ?  The  Catholics  worship  images, 
the  saints,  and  the  Virgin  Mary ;  they  believe  in  seven  sacra- 
ments, and  when  they  commemorate  our  Lord's  supper,  they 
think  they  eat  the  real  body  and  drink  the  actual  blood  of 
Christ ;  they  also  acknowledge  the  pope  as  supreme  head  of  the 
church.  Who  was  the  first  pope  that  decreed  the  infalhbility 
of  the  popes  in  general  ?  Gregory  VII.,  contemporary  with 
William  the  Conqueror ;  he  said,  in  council,  that  the  church  of 
Rome  neither  ever  had  erred,  nor  ever  could  err:  and  this- 
doctrine  of  infallibihty  was  estabhshed  by  Leo  X.  as  a  defence 
against  the  opinions  of  Luther.  Who  was  prime  minister  to 
Henry  VIII.  ?  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Who  were  his  two  great 
contemporaries  ?  Francis  L,  king  of  France  ;  and  Charles  V., 
emperor  of  Germany.  Name  the  discoveries  and  improvements 
at  this  period.  The  Bermuda,  Japan,  Ladrone,  and  Philippine 
Isles  were  discovered  :  soap,  hats,  and  needles  were  first  made 
in  England :  Peru  was  discovered  and  settled :  the  articles  of 
religion  and  the  Bible  first  printed  in  an  English  edition.  What 
great  men  suffered  death  in  this  reign  ?  Su*  Thomas  More,  the 
lord  chancellor  ;  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  (tutor  to  Henry;) 
Lord  Surrey,  famed  for  his  love  of  literature;  and  Edward 
Bohun,  Duke  of  Buckingham ;  Wolsey,  too,  was  impeached, 
but  died  of  a  broken  heart  before  his  trial ;  this  prelate  is  said 
to  have  intrigued  for  the  papal  chair. 

When  were  the  knights  of  Rhodes  first  called  by  the  title  of 


108  ORDEB  OP  JESUITS. 

Kniglits  of  Malta?  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Why?  Be- 
cause the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave  the  island  of  Malta  to  tlio 
knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  when  they  were  expelled  the 
isle  of  Rhodes  by  the  Turks,  under  Soliman  II.  Upon  what 
conditions  were  these  knights  admitted  ?  They  were  to  be  of 
noble  blood,  to  be  unmanied,  500  to  reside  upon  the  island,  and 
the  rest  to  appear  when  called  upon :  they  took  a  vow  to  defend 
Malta  from  the  invasions  of  the  Turks ;  and  were  governed  by 
thirty  superior  knights  and  a  grand-master,  chosen  from  their 
body:  in  1*798  Bonaparte  made  himself  master  of  this  island, 
on  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  through  the  treachery  of  one  of  the 
order,  which  he  totally  abolished,  but  the  French  garrison  at 
Valetta  were  compelled,  by  famine,  to  capitulate  to  the  English, 
who  were  confirmed  in  the  possession  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in 
1814.  What  act  passed  in  Henry  VIII.'s  reign  showed  the 
servile  adulation  of  his  people,  and  his  own  contempt  of  justice  ? 
It  was  enacted,  that  the  same  obedience  should  be  paid  to  the 
king's  proclamation  as  to  an  act  of  parhament ;  that  the  king 
should  not  pay  his  debts,  and  that  those  who  had  already  been 
paid  by  him  should  refund  the  money.  What  order  of  knight- 
hood was  instituted  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  ?  That  of  the 
Thistle,  by  James  V.  king  of  Scotland ;  the  knights  wear  a 
green  riband.  Who  were  the  Jesuits  ?  A  religious  order, 
founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spaniard,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  They  rose  to  power  and  influence  above  all  other  reli- 
gious orders,  though  their  rules  strictly  prohibit  its  members  to 
accept  any  office  in  the  church.  On  account  of  their  busy, 
intriguing  spirit,  their  admission  into  France  was  long  resisted 
by  its  monarchs ;  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  expelled  them  from 
his  empire  in  1719.  The  order  had  acquired  the  inveterate 
hatred  ol  the  French  people,  from  the  day  on  which  Henri 
Quatre  was  assassinated  by  the  Jesuit,  Ravaillac,  and  in  1773 
the  order  was  finally  dissolved  at  Rome,  but  their  influence  was 
such,  that  individually  they  continued  rich  and  independent. 
In  1780  there  were  9,000  Jesuits  out  of  Italy,  supposed  to  be 
secretly  under  the  guidance  of  a  superior.  The  order  was 
silently  restored  in  Sicily  in  1804,  a  novitiate  solemnly  opened 
at  Rome,  in  1814,  a  college  granted  them  at  Modena,  in  1815, 
and  they  took  possession  of  the  Collegium  Romanum  in  that 
city  in  1824.  They  have  always  maintained  the  reputation  of 
learning,  and  seminaries  for  the  education  of  youth  are  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  order  in  England  and  Ireland,  but 
the  order  has  outlived  its  political  power. 


QUEEN    MARY  109 


CONTINUATION 


QUESTIONS  IN   ENGLISH  HISTORJT. 

FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME 

Fair  thy  renown, 
In  awful  sages,  and  in  noble  bards. 

Thomson. 

When  was  tlie  battle  of  Pinkey,  or  Musselburgh,  fougbt  with 
the' Scots?  In  the  reign  of  Edward  YI.  Who  was  protector 
during  the  minority  of  Edward  ?  Seymour,  Duke  of  Somerset. 
Name  Edward  VI. 's  best  pubHc  action.  Promoting  and  estab- 
lishing the  reformation,  by  act  of  parliament.  He  ordered  that 
a  Bible  should  be  kept  in  every  church ;  that  evening  prayers 
should  be  read  in  EngHsh  in  the  king's  chapel,  and  that  popish 
images  should  be  burnt.  What  insurrection  was  there  during 
this  reign  ?  One  headed  by  Ket,  a  tanner,  a  discontented,  se- 
ditious fellow ;  he  raised  an  army  in  Norfolk,  but  was  defeated 
by  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  slew  2,000  of  his  followers, 
and  afterwards  hanged  Ket,  in  chains,  on  the  top  of  Norwich 
Castle.  To  whom  did  Edward  VI.  leave  the  crown  ?  To  Lady 
Jand  Grey,  his  cousin :  the  council  proclaimed  her  queen,  but 
she  reigned  only  ten  days,  and  was  then  deposed  by  Mary,  Ed- 
ward's sister,  and  only  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Catharine 
of  Arragon.  Name  the  discoveries  and  improvements  in  this 
reign.  Engraving,  and  knitting  stockings,  were  invented ;  the 
Common  Prayer  Book  was  compiled,  and  published  in  English ; 
the  Psalms  of  David  were  translated  into  verse ;  half-crowns 
were  first  coined  in  England ;  and  the  study  of  anatomy  was 
revived.  When  were  Lord  Guilford  Dudley  and  Lady  Jane 
Grey  beheaded  ?  In  the  reign  of  Mary.  Why  ?  Because 
Jane,  the  wife  of  Dudley,  stood  in  Mary's  way  to  the  throne. 
To  whom  was  Mary  married  ?  To  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain : 
Mary  was  a  zealous  advocate  for  the  Cathohc  faith,  and  repeal- 
ed all  the  acts  of  her  brother  Edward,  passed  in  favor  of  the 
reformation ;  she  caused  the  Protestants  to  be  burnt  in  Smith  • 
field,  as  heretics;  the  Bishops  Gardiner  and  Bonner  assisted 

10 


110  QUEEN    ELIZABETH, 

her  in  the  execution  of  these  barbarities:  Cranmer,  Ridley. 
Latimer,  Hooper,  and  Farrar,  with  near  300  others,  perished  al 
the  stake  in  this  reign.  When  did  the  English  lose  Calais  ? 
In  the  reign  of  Mary :  the  celebrated  Duke  of  Guise  recon- 
quered it.  What  improvements  were  made  in  the  arts  in 
Mary's  time  ?  Hemp  and  flax  were  first  planted  in  England ; 
and  the  Horse  Guards  instituted ;  coaches  first  used ;  starch 
was  also  invented. 

Name  the  principal  events  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Sii 
Francis  Drake's  voyage  round  the  world ;  the  Spanish  Armada 
defeated  ;  the  Irish  rebellion  suppresse  i  ;  and  the  execution  of 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots.  What  was  the  Spanish  Armada  ?  A 
fieel  of  ships,  sent  out  by  Phihp  II.,  of  Spain,  to  invade  Eng- 
land How  did  Elizabeth  evince  her  modesty,  and  trust  in 
God,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  ?  By  ascribing 
the  victory  less  to  English  bravery  alone,  than  to  the  merciful 
mterposition  of  Providence ;  and  she  ordered  a  medal  to*  be 
struck,  which  represented  a  fleet  beaten  by  a  tempest,  and  fall- 
ing foul  of  each  other,  with  this  inscription,  "  He  blew  "vvith  his 
wind,  and  they  were  scattered."  Many  of  the  Spanish  men-of- 
war,  and  of  which  no  mention  is  made  in  history,  were  lost  on 
the  western  coast  of  Ireland.  Who  was  Mary,  queen  of  Scots  ? 
Daughter  to  James  V.,  king  of  Scotland,  and  cousin  to  Eliza- 
beth :  she  was  famed  for  her  beauty  and  misfortunes.  Who 
was  Mary's  chief  counsellor  ?  David  Rizzio,  an  Italian.  Name 
Mary's  husbands.  Francis  II.,  king  of  France ;  Henry,  Lord 
Damley,  and  Duke  of  Albany,  in  Scotland;  and  the  Earl  of 
Bothwell,  afterwards  Duke  of  the  Orkneys :  Mary  was  eighteen 
years  a  prisoner  in  England,  and  was  at  length  executed  at 
Fotheringay  Castle,  in  Northamptonshire.  Name  some  men  of 
genius  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  Shakspeare  and  Spenser.  For 
what  are  Shakspeare's  works  particularly  famed  ?  For  the  wit, 
variety,  and  genius  displayed  throughout,  no  two  characters 
being  alike.  Of  wha ;  do  Shakspeare's  works  consist  ?  Of 
plays,  both  tragic  and  comic,  he  excelled  in  both,  and  poems. 
When  did  the  Scots  first  openly  declare  themselves  Protestants  ? 
In  the  reign  of  their  queen  Mary.  What  is  the  estabhshed  re- 
ligion of  the  Scots  now?  Calvinism;  which  takes  its  name 
from  Calvin,  whose  opinions  they  follow :  the  reformation  in 
Scotland  was  effected  by  John  Knox,  who  resembled  Luther  in 
personal  intrepidity  and  popular  eloquence,  and  approached 
Calvin  in  his  rehgious  sentiments  and  the  severity  of  his  man- 
ners. Who  were  the  most  distinguished  naval  oflicers  in  EUza- 
beth's  reign  ?     Drake,  Howard,  Hawkins,  Frobisher,  and  Ila* 


MASSACRE    OF    PROTESTANTS    IN    FRANCE.  111. 

leigh.  Name  some  great  men  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  Sir  Philip 
Sydney,  Lord  Burleigh,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
and  Sir  Francis  Walsingham.  Sir  Philip  Sydney  aimed  at  the 
crown  of  Poland,  but  Elizabeth  was  unwilling  to  promote  his 
advancement,  lest  she  should  lose  so  bright  an  ornament  to  her 
court. 

When  happened  the  dreadful  massacre  of  Protestants  at 
Paris  ?  On  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX., 
of  France,  and  Ehzabeth,  queen  of  England.  What  memorable 
answer  did  the  Viscount  D'Ortez,  one  of  Charles's  nobihty,  give 
him  when  he  sent  a  circular  letter  to  command  the  execution  of 
the  Protestants  ?  This :  "  Your  majesty  has  many  faithful 
subjects  in  this  city  of  Bayonne,  but  not  one  executioner." , 
Name  the  chief  leaders  on  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  sides  in 
France,  during  the  civil  wars  there.  On  the  Catholic  vere 
Charles  IX,,  the  two  Dukes  of  Guise,  and  Catherine  de  Medicis, 
the  chief  instigator  of  the  wars ;  on  the  Protestant,  the  Prince 
of  Conde,  Admiral  Coligni,  and  Henry  the  Great,  then  king  of 
Navan-e.  When  was  the  slave-trade  first  practised  in  England  ? 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  :  it  was  introduced  by  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins. What  young  Englishman  was  at  the  head  of  a  conspiracy 
against  Elizabeth,  to  place  her  rival  upon  the  throne  ?  Anthony 
Babington,  who  was  afterwards  executed.  Name  the  discov- 
eries, inventions,  and  improvements,  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  Stops 
were  introduced  in  reading  and  writing ;  coaches  and  watches 
first  common  in  England ;  the  study  of  botany  was  revived ; 
knives  first  made  in  England ;  Holland  declared  a  republic ; 
and  criminals  first  sentenced  to  transportation.  Name  the  first 
prince  of  the  Stuart  line  who  reigned  in  England.  James  I.  of 
England,  and  YI.  of  Scotland  ;  he  was  called  Solomon.  What 
remarkable  event  happened  to  James,  before  he  ascended  the 
English  throne?  Earl  Gowrie's  conspiracy  against  him,  who 
invited  James  to  his  house,  and  took  him  prisoner ;  but  the 
king  was  afterwards  rescued  by  his  attendants.  What  were 
the  most  remarkable  occurrences  in  this  reign  ?  The  gunpowder 
plot  was  discovered  and  defeated ;  and  the  celebrated  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh  beheaded.  What  was  the  gunpowder  plot  ?  A 
scheme  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  to  blow  up  both  houses  of  par- 
liament by  laying  a  train  of  gunpowder  under  them.  Who  was 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ?  A  famous  historian  and  navigator. 
When  was  the  first  general  assembly  of  the  church  of  Scotland  ? 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.  Name  the  improvements  in  the  time 
of  James  I.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  was  discovered ;  tel- 
escopes were  invented ;  the  satellites  round  the  planet  Saturn 


112  CHARLES  I. CROMWELL. 

were  first  perceived  ;    baronets  created  ;  mulberry  trees  first 
planted  in  England,  and  potatoes  brought  thitter. 

What  is  meant  by  Highland  Clans  ?  Tribes  of  Scotch  High- 
landers :  each  of  these  clans  bears  a  different  name,  and  anciently 
lived  upon  the  lands  of  their  respective  chieftains,  to  whom  they 
showed  every  mark  of  attachment,  and  cheerfully  shed  their 
blood  in  their  defence  ;  these  chieftains,  in  return,  bestowed  a . 
protection  upon  their  clans,  equally  founded  on  gratitude  and  a 
sense  of  their  own  interest.  Name  the  characteristic  traits  of 
the  ancient  Scotch  Highlanders.  Fidelity,  hospitality,  and  great 
family  pride.  What  were  their  dress  and  character  ?  They 
wore  a  plaid  made  of  woollen  stuff,  or  tartan,  which  either  hung 
down  from  their  shoulders,  or  was  fastened  with  a  belt ;  from 
this  belt  hung  their  sword,  dagger,  knives,  and  pistol :  a  large 
leathern  purse,  hanging  before,  adorned  with  silver,  was  always 
a  part  of  the  chieftain's  dress :  their  patience  was  unwearied, 
their  courage  undaunted,  and  their  honor  unsullied.  Name  the 
most  striking  events  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The  wars  be- 
tween Charles  and  his  parliament ;  the  Irish  massacre  ;  and  the 
execution  of  Lord  Strafford  and  Archbishop  Laud :  this  unfor- 
tunate king  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  parliament,  confined  at 
Carisbrook  Castle  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  at  last  beheaded. 
When  did  Clarendon  and  Hampden  live?  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  I. :  the  former  was  a  statesman  and  historian,  the  latter 
a  celebrated  patriot.  What  was  the  Irish  massacre  ?  A  con- 
spiracy of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Ireland,  to  murder  all  the . 
English  and  Irish  Protestants  residing  there.  What  were  the 
discoveries  and  inventions  in  this  reign?  The  Bahama  Isles 
were  discovered ;  barometers  and  thermometers  invented ;  news- 
papers first  published ;  sawing-mills  erected  ;  and  coffee  brought 
to  England.  When  did  the  Lords  Falkland  and  Fairfax  live  ? 
In  Charles  I.'s  time :  they  were  of  opposite  parties ;  Falkland 
was  attached  to  the  king. 

When  was  England  declared  a  commonwealth  ?  In  Crom- 
well's time,  protector  of  England.  Name  the  most  remarkable 
events  in  the  protectorship  of  Cromwell.  A  war  with  the 
Dutch,  who  were  defeated ;  and  the  island  of  Jamaica  conquered: 
Cromwell  made  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  ;  landed  in  that  king- 
dom, took  Drogheda  by  storm,  and  put  all  the  inhabitants  to 
the  sword :  the  sect  called  Quakers  appeared,  and  the  parlia- 
ment contemptuously  dismissed  by  Cromwell,  who  ordered  the 
doors  to  be  forthwith  locked:  several  Spanish  galleons  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  English  fleet  near  Cadiz,  one  of  which 
had  treasure  on  board  amounting  to  two  millions,  all  silver, 


CHARLES  II.  113 

After  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  entitled,  "  Killing  no  Mur 
der,"  Cromwell  never  considered  his  life  secure  ;  he  wore  armor 
under  his  clothes,  carried  pistols,  and  changed  his  bed-chamber 
almost  every  night.  Name  the  two  distinguishing  traits  in 
Cromwell's  character.  Hypocrisy  and  ambition.  When  did 
Milton  Uve?  In  Cromwell's  time,  to  whom  he  was  Latin 
secretary  :  Cromwell,  however,  in  general,  was  by  no  means 
an  encourager  of  learning ;  but  the  nation,  under  his  adminis- 
tration, improved  both  in  riches  and  power.  Why  did  Richard 
Cromwell  resign  the  protectorship  ?  Because  he  did  not  possess 
those  great  qualities  which  were  necessary  to  support  the  views 
of  his  father,  Oliver  Cromwell.  What  were  the  improvements 
made  about  this  time  ?  St.  Helena  was  settled  ;  air-pumps  and 
speaking-trumpets  were  invented. 

When  was  Charles  11.  restored  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors  ? 
He  embarked  at  the  Hague  on  the  23d  of  May,  1660,  for  Eng- 
land, and  arrived  at  Dover  the  25th,  where  he  was  met  by 
General  Monck,  afterwards  Duke  of  Albemarle,  on  whom  lie 
conferred  the  order  of  the  Garter;  on  the  29th,  being  his  birth- 
day, he  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  the  city  of  London,  and 
proceeded  to  Whitehall.  Name  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
events  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Dunkirk  sold  to  the  French 
for  400,000  crowns;  the  great  fire  and  plague  in  London; 
apd  the  Royal  Society  estabhshed  for  the  improvement  of  phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  physics,  and  all  useful  knowledge :  Mr. 
Boyle  and  Sir  William  Petty  were  amongst  the  firsi  members 
and  promoters.  When  was  the  bill  of  exclusion  attempted  to 
be  passed  ?  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  to  prevent  the  Duke 
of  York,  brother  to  Charles,  from  ascending  the  throne,  as  he 
was  a  papist ;  this  bill  passed  the  house  of  commons,  but  the 
lords  threw  it  out :  in  this  reign  also  many  of  the  corporations 
in  England  were  induced  to  surrender  their  charters.  What  is 
meant  by  the  charter  of  a  corporation  ?  Its  right  to  elect 
a  mayor  and  aldermen.  When  were  Algernon  Sydney  and 
Lord  Russell  beheaded  ?  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Name 
some  men  of  genius  in  this  reign.  Milton,  Boyle,  Dryden,  Ot- 
way,  Butler,  Temple,  Waller,  Cowley,  Wycherley,  and  Halley ; 
the  Earl  of  Arundel,  also,  the  great  patron  of  learning  and  ge- 
nius, obtained  the  title  of  the  English  Maecenas.  What  were 
the  chief  works  of  these  authors  ?  Milton  wrote  two  epic  poems, 
called  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained;  several  minor 
pieces,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  L' Allegro,  II  Pense- 
roso,  Comus,  and  Lysidas.  Boyle,  treatises  upon  Natural  and 
Exp'jrmental  Philosophy.     Dryden  translated  Virgil,  Plutarch, 

10* 


1  14  JAMES  II. 

Juvenax,  and  Persius ;  wrote  twenty-seven  plays,  and  numerous 
pieces  of  poetry.  Otwa)%  plays.  Butler,  Hudibras.  Temple^ 
polite  literature.  Waller,  poems.  Cowley,  miscellaneous  poe- 
try. Wyclierley,  poems  and  plays ;  and  Halley,  on  astronomi- 
cal subjects.  Name  some  inventions  and  improvements  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  Hydraulic  fire-engines  were  invented; 
buckles  introduced;  gazettes  first  published;  and  the  penny- 
post  set  up. 

Name  the  most  memorable  actions  in  the  reign  of  James  II. 
The  duke  of  Monmouth's  rebellion ;  seven  bishops  sent  to  the 
Tower  for  refusing  to  read  the  decrees  of  James,  for  liberty  of 
conscience  in  the  Protestant  churches,  intended  to  bring  the 
Papists  into  civil  and  ecclesiastical  employments ;  and  his  en- 
deavors to  reconcile  the  church  of  England  to  the  see  of  Rome : 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth  was  defeated  by  the  Earl  of  Faversham 
and  Lord  Churchill,  at  Sedgmore,  near  Bridgewater,  in  Somer- 
setshire on  the  fifth  of  July,  1685,  when  1,300  of  his  adherents 
were  slain,  and  an  equal  number  taken  prisoners :  Lord  Grey 
fell  into  the  king's  power  the  next  day,  and  the  Duke  on  the 
8th  of  the  same  month  :  he  was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  in  the 
thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age  ;  and  those  concerned  in  his  rebel- 
lion were  convicted,  and  sentenced  by  Judge  Jeffries,  noted  for 
severity  in  the  execution  of  his  office.  What  became  of  James  ? 
He  engaged  King  William  III.  in  Ireland,  where  he  suSered  a 
complete  overthrow ;  was  obliged  to  abdicate  the  throne,  on 
account  of  his  religious  principles  and  arbitrary  conduct ;  he 
fled  to  France,  and  died  at  Saint  Germain's ;  this  king  intro- 
duced the  use  of  sea-signals. 

When  was  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  ?  In  the  reign  of  William 
III.,  between  William  and  James ;  the  former  was  T'ictorious. 
What  renowned  generals  fought  under  the  banners  of  William  ? 
The  Duke  of  Schomberg,  Baron  de  Ginkle,  Count  de  Solmnes, 
and  Prince  George  of  Denmark.  What  great  men  shed  lustre 
on  this  reign  ?  Newton,  Locke,  Tillotson,  Prior,  and  Burnet. 
Name  their  chief  works.  Newton  wrote  on  astronomy  and 
the  mathematics  ;  Locke,  on  philosophical  subjects ;  Prior, 
poems  ;  Burnet,  history  and  divinity  ;  and  Tillotson,  sermons. 
What  Russian  monarch  travelled  through  Europe,  in  the  reign 
of  William  and  Mary,  to  obtain  instruction  in  the  arts  of  com- 
merce and  the  mechanics  ?  Peter  the  Great :  this  prince 
evinced  that  nobility  of  mind  is  superior  to  the  advantages  of 
birth,  by  his  marriage  with  Catharine  I.,  who,  having  a  grea* 
soul,  was  raised  from  the  lowest  condition  to  share  his  throne. 
What  remarkable  expression  of  Peter  the  Great  proves  the 


ANNE.  115 

weakness  of  human  reason  ?  This  :  "  I  can  reform  my  people, 
but  how  shall  I  reform  myself  ?"  Peter  knew  not  the  blessings 
of  being  early  taught  the  lessons  of  morality ;  his  sublime  genius 
had  not  been  sufficiently  cultivated,  nor  his  passions  accustomed 
to  the  restraints  of  reason ;  his  virtues  were  all  his  own,  his 
defects  those  of  his  education  and  country.  Name  the  chief 
improvements  in  the  reign  of  William.  Reflecting  telescopes 
were  made,  and  bayonets  first  used,  made  at  Bayonne,  in 
France  ;  the  bank  of  England  was  also  established,  and  public 
lotteries  appointed  by  government ;  from  which  period  till  1824 
no  session  passed  without  a  lottery  bill. 

Whom  did  queen  Anne  marry  ?  Prince  George  of  Denmark  ; 
she  had  six  children  by  him,  but  they  all  died  in  infancy. 
What  general,  in  her  reign,  was  famed  for  his  military  talents 
and  courtly  accomplishments?  The  Duke  of  Marlborough: 
his  victories  at  Blenheim,  Oudenarde,  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet, 
will  transmit  his  name  to  the  most  distant  posterity ;  he  was 
created  Prince  of  Mindleheim,  by  Joseph  I.,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, in  consideration  of  his  signal  services  to  the  house  of 
Austria,  When  was  the  act  of  union  between  England  and 
Scotland  passed  ?  In  the  reign  of  Anne  :  the  Scotch  nation  is 
represented  in  the  British  parliament  by  sixteen  peers  and  fifty- 
three  commoners.  When  was  the  Hanoverian  succession  es- 
tablished ?  In  Anne's  time ;  and  the  line  of  Stuart  was  set 
aside,  to  place  that  of  Brunswick  upon  the  throne :  because, 
after  the  death  of  Anne,  there  being  no  Protestant  heir  to  the 
crown  of  her  line,  the  house  of  Hanover  then  stood  the  nearest 
in  succession.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  Whig  and  Tory  ? 
Whig  was  a  name  given  in  queen  Anne's  time  to  those  who 
were  for  liberty  without  abandoning  monarchy,  and  friends  to 
the  house  of  Hanover :  and  Tory  was  a  title  by  which  those 
were  distinguished  who  were  for  absolute  monarchy,  and  friends 
to  the  house  of  Stv^^rt.  When  did  the  English  take  the  town 
and  fortification  of  Gibraltar  from  Spain  ?  In  the  reign  of 
Anne  :  it  has  continued  ever  since  in  their  possession.  When 
were  the  British  and  French  Augustan  ages  ?  The  French, 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. ;  the  Enghsh  in  that  of  queen  Anne. 
Name  some  men  of  talents  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Descartes, 
an  astronomer ;  Fontaine,  Moliere,  Boileau,  and  Comeille,  poets : 
Bossuet  and  Rapin,  historians  ;  Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray,  the  author  of  Telemachus  :  the  two  Daciers,  critics  and 
translators  :  and  Madame  Sevigne,  who  shone  in  the  belles- 
lettres.  Name  some  men  of  genius  in  Anne's  reign.  Pope  and 
Swift,  Congreve  and  Rowe,  poets ;  Bolingbroke  and  Shaftesbury, 


116  STUARTS. GEORGE  1. 

philosophers ;  Steele  and  Addison,  celebrated  for  their  excellen, 
periodical  pubhcations  ;  and  Arbuthnot,  who  wrote  on  medrcaj 
subjects. 

Which  Hne  of  kings  has  been  the  most  uninterruptedly  un- 
fortunate ?  The  line  of  Stuart.  Name  some  of  the  vicissitudes 
it  has  experienced  ?  James  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  was  assassin- 
ated ;  James  11.  was  killed  by  the  sphnter  of  a  cannon  which 
burst  near  him  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh  ;  James  III.  was  killed 
in  battle,  while  endeavoring  to  crush  a  rebellion  of  his  subjects  ; 
James  IV.  fell  at  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field ;  James  V.  died 
of  grief  for  the  loss  of  a  fine  army ;  Mary,  queen  of  Scotland,* 
was  beheaded  ;  Charles  I.,  king  of  Scotland  and  England, 
shared  the  same  fate ;  Charles  II.  wandered  many  years  as  an 
exile  ;  James  II.  was  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne.  Louis 
XIV.  received  the  exiled  family  with  great  hospitahty,  assigned 
the  palace  of  St.  Germain  as  their  residence,  and  settled  a  pen- 
sion on  them  of  6000  livres.  Who  were  the  two  Pretenders  ? 
The  son  and  grandson  of  James  11. :  after  experiencing  innu- 
merable hardships  in  their  fruitless  attempts  to  recover  the 
crown,  they  were  proclaimed  as  traitors,  and  had  a  price  of 
£40,000  set  upon  their  heads,  but  they  escaped  to  France,  and 
both  died  there. 

Name  the  three  most  remarkable  events  in  the  reign  of  George 
I.  The  rebellion  in  Scotland,  in  1*715,  in  favor  of  the  Pretender; 
the  South-sea  scheme,  and  its  ruinous  termination ;  and  the  act 
passed  for  septennial  parhaments.  The  electorate  of  Hanover 
was  annexed  to  the  British  crown  in  this  reign ;  and  the  battles 
of  Preston  Pans  and  Sheriff  Muir  were  fought  with  the  rebels. 
What  Wire  the  improvements  and  discoveries  in  this  reign  ? 
The  northern  lights  were  observed  ;  inoculation  used ;  the  East 
India  House  built,  and  the  commerce  of  the  company  greatly 
extended ;  and  the  Scots  attained  the  art  of  making  thread. 

When  were  the  battles  of  Dettingen  and  Culloden  fought  ? 
In  the  reign  of  George  II. ;  the  former  was  gained  by  the  king 
in  person,  in  favor  of  the  queen  of  Hungary ;  in  the  latter,  Wil- 
liam, Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  victorious  over  the  Pretender, 
whom  he  finally  defeated.  When  was  the  battle  of  Minden  ? 
In  George  II. 's  time  ;  gained  by  the  English  against  the  French. 
In  what  part  of  the  globe  did  the  English  forces,  during  this 
reign,  extend  their  conquests  ?  Through  the  greater  part  of 
North  America,  headed  by  Townshend  and  the  gallant  Wolfe, 
who  gained  immortal  glory.  When  did  Lord  Anson  sail  round 
the  world  ?  In  the  reign  of  George  II.  What  remarkable 
inaprovements  mark  this  reign  ?     The  new  style  was  introduced 


GEORGE  III.  117 

into  England ;  the  British  museum  established ;  and  the  Latin 
language  abolished  in  the  courts  of  law.  What  Englishman 
signalized  himself  at  this  time  by  his  victories  in  the  East  Indies  ? 
Colonel  Clive,  afterwards  Lord  Clive  :  in  this  reign  happened 
that  disastrous  ajQfair  at  Calcutta,  when  146  Enghshmen,  con- 
fined in  a  sma.l  room  called  the  Black  Hole,  by  command  of  the 
nabob,  were  in  such  want  of  space  and  air,  that  123  were  found 
dead  the  next  morning. 

Name  some  remarkable  events  in  the  reign  of  George  III. 
In  the  early  part  of  this  king's  reign  Captain  Cook  sailed  round 
the  world  ;  New  Holland  was  discovered  ;  the  Isle  of  Man  was 
annexed  to  the  British  crown  ;  the  order  of  Jesuits  suppressed 
by  the  pope ;  war  with  the  American  colonies ;  the  riots  in 
London,  (1780;)  and  after  a  contest  of  eight  years,  the  inde- 
pendence of  America  acknowledged  by  the  British  government 
n  1783,  and  peace  declared  between  the  United  States  and 
England  on  the  15th  Sept.  Name  some  other  interesting  events. 
The  severe  indisposition  and  recovery  of  the  monarch  ;  the  revo- 
lution in  France,  (1789;)  that  ancient  monarchy  declared  a 
republic ;  war  with  the  French  ;  rebellion  in  Ireland ;  the  great 
naval  victories  of  Howe,  Vincent,  Duncan,  Nelson,  and  Colling- 
wood ;  and  the  brilliant  conquests  of  Seringapatam  and  the 
Mysore  country,  by  Lieutenant- General  Harris;  the  directory 
was  abolished  in  France,  and  the  consular  government  appointed 
in  1799. 

What  great  events  mark  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury ?  The  union  between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  :  General 
Bonaparte,  afterwards  Napoleon  I.  of  France,  was  chosen  chief 
consul  for  life ;  the  battles  of  Copenhagen  and  Alexandria ;  after 
the  latter,  the  French  were  compelled  to  eVacuate  Egypt.  In 
1802,  peace  iv^as  signed  between  England  and  France,  and  th3 
Catholic  religion  publicly  restored  in  the  French  dominions. 
The  treaty  of  Amiens  was  dissatisfactory  to  the  English,  who, 
in  consequence,  revived  the  war  again  in  1803,  and  acquired 
alliances  on  the  continent ;  but  these  arrangements  only  led  to 
the  aggrandizement  of  Bonaparte,  extension  of  the  French  em- 
pire, and  ruin  of  the  allies.  Nelson  asserted  the  claim  of 
Britain  to  the  empire  of  the  seas,  and  destroyed  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets,  off  Trafalgar,  in  1805  ;  the  death  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  the  uncompromising  enemy  of  Napoleon,  gave  a  mo- 
mentary prospect  of  peace,  which  the  ambition  of  the  con- 
queror obstructed ;  the  English  fleet  bombarded  Copenhagen, 
and  seized  the  whole  of  the  Danish  fleet,  while  her  army  imder 
Wellington,  already  landed  in  Portugal,  defeated  Junot,  the 


118  GEORGE  III. 

French  general,  and  obliged  the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Tagus  to 
capitulate,  in  1808 ;  the  Spaniards  also  had  risen  against  tlie 
French,  and  received  supplies  of  money  and  troops  from  Eng- 
land ;  the  victories  of  Wellington  in  Spain  shook  the  throne  of 
Kapoleon,  and  the  accession  of  the  European  powers  to  the 
coalition  completed  its  fall;  the  return  of  the  emperor  from 
Elba  afiforded  the  British  hero  an  opportunity  of  gaining  ad- 
ditional glory  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815:  after 
twenty-three  years  of  almost  uninten-upted  war,  a  universal 
peace  ensued.  What  consequences  of  the  protracted  war  con- 
tinue still  to  affect  the  prosperity  of  England  ?  The  national 
debt,  which  now  amounts  to  upwards  of  £800,000,000.  Who 
succeeded  Mr.  Fox  in  the  premiership  of  England  ?  Spencer 
Perceval;  he  was  assassinated  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  in  1812,  by  Bellingham,  a  lunatic:  Lord  Castlereagh, 
who  succeeded  him,  in  a  fit  of  temporary  derangement  com- 
mitted suicide ;  and  Mr.  Canning  died  of  a  broken  heart  shortly 
after  his  elevation  to  the  same  high  but  anxious  office :  in  1819, 
the  distresses  of  the  manufacturers  w^ere  manifested  in  different 
places,  particularly  at  Manchester,  where  many  thousands  as- 
sembled, 16th  of  August,  1819,  and  were  not  dispersed  without 
the  sacrifice  of  lives :  the  last  convulsion  of  this  disease  was 
Thistlewood's  Cato-street  conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  min- 
isters, for  which  he  and  four  of  his  accomplices  suffered  death. 

What  have  been  the  chief  improvements  in  the  reign  of 
George  III.  ?  Electricity,  by  the  discoveries  of  Doctors  Frank- 
lin and  Priestley,  brought  to  great  perfection ;  academy  of 
painting  established  :  .air  balloons  invented ;  and  telegraphs 
used,  though  known  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy :  the  arts  and 
sciences  received  ef ery  possible  encouragement  from  this  iing, 
and  the  many  improvements  in  them  under  this  reign  are  too 
numerous  to  parti  :ularize  in  a  work  of  this  nature.  Name  a 
few  of  the  most  distinguished  authors  since  the  accession  of  the 
line  of  Hanover.  Bentley,  the  critic ;  Thomson,  Shenstone, 
Young,  Akenside,  Chatterton,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Mickle,  Whar- 
ton, Bums,  Cowper,and  Byron,  poets;  Watts,  Sherlock,  Hoadley, 
liCland,  Lardner,  Jortin,  Warburton,  Newton,  Kennicott,  Lowth, 
Price,  Kippis,  and  Blair,  divines ;  Fielding,  Richardson,  Sterne, 
Smollett,  and  Scott,  novelists ;  Lyttleton,  Hume,  Robertson, 
and  Gibbon,  historians ;  Ramsey,  Chesterfield,  Johnson,  Hawkes- 
worth,  Burke,  and  Melmoth,  wrote  chiefly  on  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects ;  Johnson  excelled  also  as  a  poet  and  biographer.  Name 
some  other  great  characters.  Keill,  Saunderson,  and  Robins, 
mathematicians ;    Heame   and   Baker,  antiquaries ;    Sir  Hans 


GEORGE  IV.  119 

Sloane  and  Hales,  naturalists  ;  Graham,  Brindley,  and  Harrison, 
mechanics ;  Flamstead,  Kradley,  Ferguson,  and  Herschell,  as- 
tronomers; West,  an  American  by  birth,  Lawrence,  and  Wilkie, 
painters. 

When  did  George  IV.  ascend  the  throne  ?  In  the  year  1820, 
having  previously  governed  as  Regent  for  nine  years.  What 
remarkable  events  took  place  in  the  reign  of  this  king?  The  trial 
of  Queen  Caroline ;  and  the  passing  of  the  Relief  Bill,  admitting 
Roman  Cathohcs  into  parliament.  By  whom  was  George  IV. 
succeeded?  By  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  as- 
sumed the  title  of  William  IV. :  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
an  act  was  passed  for  "reforming  the  representation  of  the 
United  Kingdom."  By  whom  was  this  king  succeeded  ?  By 
Queen  Victoria,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1837,  at  the  age  of 
only  eighteen  years. 

Which  four  of  the  British  queens  have  given  the  greatest 
proofs  of  courage  and  intrepidity  ?  Boadicea,  queen  of  tho 
Iceni ;  Philippa,  wife  to  Edward  III. ;  Margaret  of  Anjou,  wife 
to  Henry  VI. ;  and  Elizabeth,  who  reigned  ifi  her  own  right. 
What  English  monarchs,  since  the  conquest,  have  ascended  the 
throne  when  minors  ?  Henry  III.,  Edward  III.,  Richard  II., 
Henry  VI.,  Edward  V.,  Edward  VI.,  and  Queen  Victoria. 

What  English  kings  have  been  most  noted  for  their  love  of 
war  and  conquest  ?  Richard  I.,  Edward  I.,  Edward  III.,  and 
Henry  V.  What  is  true  glory  ?  Active  benevolence,  fortitude 
to  support  the  frowns  of  fortune,  evenness  of  temper  in  pros- 
perity, patience  in  afflictions,  contempt  of  unmerited  injuries : 
this  is  virtue,  and  the  fame  of  virtuous  actions  can  alone  be  call- 
ed true  glory.  Name  some  of  the  antiquities  in  England.  Picts' 
Wall,  between  Northumberland  and  Cumberland  ;  Stonehenge, 
in  Wiltshire,  (or  circles  of  stones  forming  an  enclosed  space  on 
Salisbury  Plain,  near  the  city  of  Salisbury,  where  the  Druids 
worshipped ;)  Joseph's  chapel  at  Glastonbury  ;  York  Minster ; 
Westminster  Abbey  and  Hall ;  and  many  Roman  monuments, 
altars,  and  roads.  Name  the  six  greatest  philosophers  Great 
Britain  has  produced.  Roger  Bacon,  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  the 
Honorable  Robert  Boyle,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  James  Usher,  and 
John  Locke.  Name  the  weak  kings  who  have  filled  the  Eng- 
lish throne  since  the  conquest.  John,  Henry  III.,  Edward  11. , 
Richard  II.,  Henry  VI.,  Charles  I.,  and  James  II.  What  is 
meant  by  a  patriot  king  ?  One  who  has  his  country's  welfare 
particularly  at  heart,  and  studies  the  benefit  of  his  subjects 
more  than  his  own  private  interest. 

What  is  the  government  of  England  ?     Limited  monarchy ; 


120  IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT. 

the  crown  is  hereditary,  and  females  have  the  right  of  succes- 
sion. What  power  has  the  king  of  England  ?  He  alone  de- 
clares war,  and  makes  peace ;  receives  and  appoints  ambassa- 
dors ;  disposes  of  the  several  governments  in  the  kingdom,  and 
of  all  civil,  mihtary,  and  naval  employments ;  he  is  heir  to  all 
estates  when  no  other  heir  can  be  found ;  the  law  is  constantly 
administered  in  his  name,  and  he  has  a  power  to  pardon  all 
offences  committed  against  it.  What  other  powers  has  the 
king  ?  He  nominates  all  the  great  officers  of  the  state  and 
household ;  disposes  of  all  the  vacant  bishoprics  ;  no  money 
can  be  lawfully  coined  without  his  command,  and  he  can  refuse 
his  assent  to  any  bill,  though  it  should  have  passed  both  houses 
of  parliament ;  but  this  branch  of  theu*  prerogative  the  kings 
of  England  have  seldom  asserted. 

Of  whom  is  the  imperial  parhament  composed  ?  Of  the  king, 
the  lords  spiritual  (or  bishops  and  archbishops,  of  whom  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  the  chief,  or  primate  of  England) 
and  temporal,  and  the  commons,  who  debate  in  a  separate 
house ;  they  are  all  assembled  by  the  king's  writ,  and  the  power 
of  dissolving  them  rests  with  him.  What  is  the  jurisdiction  of 
parliament  ?  It  has  uncontrollable  authority  in  making,  abro- 
gating, repealing,  and  revising  laws :  it  can  regulate,  and  new 
model,  the  succession  to  the  crown ;  alter  or  establish  the  re- 
ligion of  the  land;  and  even  change  the  constitution  of  the 
kingdom,  and  of  parliaments  themselves.  Who  are  the  Lords 
Spiritual  ?  Two  Archbishops,  and  twenty-four  Bishops,  as 
representatives  of  the  Enghsh  church ;  and  one  Archbishop, 
and  five  Bishops,  for  Ireland.  Who  are  the  Lords  Temporal  ? 
All  Peers  of  the  Realm  are  members  of  the  upper  house :  some 
of  these  sit  by  descent,  some  by  creation ;  but  the  sixteen  Peers 
for  Scotland  are  elected  at  the  opening  of  every  new  parhament, 
and  twenty-eight  Irish  Peers  are  elected  for  life.  What  is  the 
number  of  persons  in  the  House  of  Lords  ?  It  is  not  fixed,  as 
it  may  be  increased  at  will  by  the  power  of  the  crown.  Of 
whom  are  the  Commons  composed  ?  They  are  in  general  men 
of  independent  property ;  every  candidate  for  a  county  is  re- 
quired to  possess  an  estate  of  £600  per  annum ;  for  a  city  or 
borough,  £300 ;  this  qualification  is  not  required  in  Scotland : 
the  counties  are  represented  by  knights,  the  cities  and  boroughs 
\j  gentlemen,  citizens,  or  merchants;  the  number  of  Enghsh 
representatives  is  471  ;  of  Welsh,  29;  of  Scotch,  53;  and  of 
Irish,  105,  making  a  total  of  658.  What  are  the  quahfications 
of  an  elector  ?  In  cities  and  boroughs  the  privilege  of  voting 
for  the  election  of  members  extends  to  every  male  person  of 


HOUSE  OF  COMMONS.  121 

full  age,  and  not  subject  to  any  legal  incapacity,  who  occupies 
a  building  within  the  prescribed  boundary  of  the  clear  annual 
value  of  £10,  provided  he  shall  have  paid  the  poor  rates  and 
taxes.  What  is  meant  by  the  Chiltern  Hundreds  ?  They  are 
hundreds,  or  divisions  of  counties  parcelled  out  by  the  wise 
Alfred,  and  now  annexed  to  the  crown ;  they  still  retain  their 
peculiar  courts. 

What  are  the  stewards  of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds?  The 
stewards  of  these  courts  are  appointed  by  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer;  their  salary  is  twenty  shilHngs  a  year.  As  the 
laws  enact  that  a  member  of  parliament  who  accepts  a  place 
under  the  crown  may  not  sit  unless  re-elected,  accepting  the 
stewardship  of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds  is  merely  a  formal  man- 
ner of  resigning  a  seat,  when  the  member  wishes  to  be  rechosen, 
or  to  retire  altogether. 

What  is  meant  by  a  Call  of  the  House  ?  This,  in  parliamen- 
tary proceedings,  is  calling  the  names  of  the  Commons  over, 
each  member  answering  to  his  own,  and  leaving  the  house  in 
the  order  he  is  called  in:  this  plan  is  adopted  to  discover 
whether  any  member  be  absent,  or  any  person  present  who  is 
not  a  member :  if  only  forty  members  are  present,  the  house 
may  in  general  proceed  to  business :  when  very  important 
questions  are  agitated,  a  Call  of  the  House  takes  place. 

What  is  a  Committee  of  t-he  whole  House  ?  It  is  said  to  be 
a  Committee  of  the  whole  House,  when  each  member  may 
speak  as  often  as  he  pleases ;  when  the  house  is  not  in  a  com- 
mittee, no  member  may  speak  more  than  once,  unless  to  explain 
himself.  What  are  the  oaths  taken  by  electors  ?  They  take 
the  oath  of  abjuration,  and  likewise  swear  that  they  have  not 
polled  (or  voted)  before,  during  that  election ;  and  that  they 
have  not,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  received  any  sums  of 
money,  place  or  employment,  gift  or  reward  ;  nor  any  promises 
of  such  money,  place,  or  employment,  in  order  to  induce  them 
to  give  their  vote.  What  are  the  requisites  for  an  English, 
Scotch,  and  Irish  member  of  parliament  ?  In  order  to  prevent 
the  mischiefs  arising  from  placing  authority  in  improper  hands, 
the  laws  enact,  that  no  one  shall  sit  or  vote  in  parhament  who 
is  under  age ;  that  all  members  shall  take  the  proper  oaths, 
except  quakers,  who  are  permitted  to  sit  upon  making  an  affir- 
mation ;  and  no  alien,  born  out  of  the  dominions  of  the  British 
crown,  is  capable  of  being  a  member  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

What  is  meant  by  an  adjournment,  prorogation,  and  dissolu- 
tion of  Parliament?  An  adjournment  is  a  continuation  of  the  ses- 
sion from  one  day  to  another  then  named  ;  sometimes  the  house 
11 


122  TRIAL    BY    JURY. 

adjourns  for  a  fortnight  or  month  together:  a  prorogation  is 
the  continuance  of  the  parhament  from  one  session  to  another, 
notified  generally  by  the  royal  proclamation :  a  dissolution  is 
the  total  end  of  the  parhament,  which  takes  place  by  order  of 
the  new  monarch  after  the  death  of  the  last,  or  at  the  sove- 
reign's pleasure,  or  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  granted  by 
law  for  its  continuance.  What  is  the  substance  of  the  monarch's 
coronation  oath  ?  He,  or  she,  solemnly  promises  to  govern  ac- 
cording to  law,  to  execute  judgment  in  mercy,  to  maintain  the 
established  religion  in  England  and  Ireland,  also  the  Protestant 
Presbyterian  form  of  worship  established  in  Scotland. 

How  are  English  laws  made  ?  By  the  mutual  agreement  of 
King,  Lords,  and  Commons.  Have  the  great  "  law'^  Lords  a 
seat  in  the  House  of  Peers  ?  The  twelve  judges  and  the  twelve 
masters  in  Chancery,  sit  in  the  House,  and  their  opinion  is  re- 
ferred to  occasionally,  but  they  have  no  vote ;  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor is  commonly  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords.  In  what 
respect  is  the  law  favorable  to  suspected  persons  ?  They  are 
always  furnished  with  a  list  of  the  jury ;  and  should  any  be 
proposed  as  such,  whom  they  have  reason  to  believe  prejudiced 
against  them,  the  prisoners  may  object  in  open  court  to  twenty 
men  successively ;  they  can  even  challenge  thirty-five  in  cases  of 
high  treason,  till  twelve  men  are  pitched  upon,  supposed  to  be 
competent  and  impartial  judges.  What  form  is  used  on  these 
occasions  ?  After  the  evidence  is  given  on  both  sides,  the  judge 
repeats  its  substance  to  the  jury,  who,  if  the  affair  appears 
clear,  give  their  verdict  immediately ;  should  doubts  arise,  the 
jury  retire  into  another  room,  where  they  remain  till  they  are 
unanimous  in  opinion ;  but  in  case  any  of  these  twelve  men 
should  die  while  they  are  consulting,  the  prisoner  would  be  set 
at  hberty.  The  same  form  of  trial  by  jury  exists  in  the  United 
States  of  America  ;  the  laws  of  this  country  being  founded  upon 
the  English,  and  in  many  things  exactly  the  same.  What  are 
the  customs  ?  Taxes  paid  to  government  on  goods  exported 
and  imported.  What  is  a  bill  of  entry  ?  An  account  of  gooda 
entered  at  the  custom-house.  What  is  a  bill  of  stores  ?  A 
.icense  granted  at  the  custom-house  for  merchants  to  take  such 
articles,  free  of  custom  dues,  as  are  necessary  for  their  voyage. 


FICTS  AND  SCOTS.  123 


AN  ABSTRACT 


BRITISH  HISTORY. 

FROM  THE  TERMINATION  OF  THE  INVASION  OF  JULIUS  C^SAR,  TO  THE 
ARRIVAL  OF  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. 

Julius  C^sar,  having  subdued  most  of  the  nations  of  Gaul, 
resolved  on  extending  his  conquests  to  the  other  side  of  the 
channel,  by  the  reduction  of  Britain.  His  real  motive  for  this 
unjust  aggression  was  a  desire  of  enriching  himself  by  the 
British  pearls,  then  much  esteemed  ;  but  his  pretended  plea  was 
to  punish  the  Britons  for  having  sent  assistance  to  the  Gauls 
during  his  wars  with  them.  The  first  invasion  of  Britain  by 
the  Romans  took  place,  b.  c.  55,  and  having  with  difficulty 
maintained  themselves  against  the  half- civilized  natives  for  two 
years,  Caesar  withdrew  his  legions.  Not  subdued,  although 
often  defeated,  the  Britons  contended  with  the  Romans  until 
the  military  genius  of  Agricola  completely  vanquished  them  ; — 
he  completed  the  conquest  of  the  Silures,  begun  by  Fontinus, 
added  North  Wales  also  to  the  Roman  province,  and  reduced 
seventeen  different  petty  states  of  Britain  to  subjection.  Agri- 
cola  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Domitian :  his  expedi- 
tion occupied  six  years,  and  was  completed,  a.  d.  84. 

When  Julian  the  Apostate  was  emperor,  the  Picts  and  Scots 
committed  ravages  on  the  British  frontier,  and  menaced  the 
freedom  of  the  inhabitants.  Their  violence  was  not  checked 
until  the  arrival  of  Theodosius,  who  committed  dreadful  havoc 
amongst  them,  deprived  them  of  their  booty,  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde.  The  Picts,  recovering 
from  this  disaster,  resumed  their  predatory  incursions,  upon 
which  the  Britons  senit  ambassadors  to  Rome,  with  their  gar- 
ments rent,  and'  dust  on  their  heads,  to  supplicate  assistance. 
Touched  by  their  sufferings,  Honorius  yielded,  and  the  force 
which  was  landed  in  Britain  again  repulsed  the  Picts  effectively. 
But  the  great  Roman  empire  itself,  having  declined  through  the 
luxury,  indolence,  and  crimes  of  its  emperors,  was  now  overrun 
by  the  Goths  and  other  fierce  tribes  from  the  north  of  Europe, 
— so  that  the  Britons  were  told  that  they  must  in  future  defend 


124  SAXON  HEPTARCHY 

themselves  ;  at  all  events,  no  longer  look  to  Rome  for  aid.  In 
this  extremity  they  had  recourse  to  the  Saxons,  a  hardy  race, 
inhabiting  a  part  of  Denmark  and  the  adjacent  tract  in  North- 
ern Germany ;  their  invitation  was  accepted  by  two  brothers, 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  chieftains  of  great  valor,  and  supposed  to 
be  descended  from  tlie  Saxon  god  Woden.  Received  with 
respect,  they  were  assigned  the  Isle  of  Thanet  for  their  quar- 
ters, with  which,  at  first,  they  appeared  content ;  but  observing, 
in  their  campaigns  against  the  Picts,  the  fertiUty  and  beauty  of 
ihe  country,  they  formed  the  ambitious  project  of  making  them- 
selves masters  of  Britain.  With  this  view  they  secretly  and 
dishonestly  entered  into  a  treaty  of  amity  with  their  former 
enemies,  the  Picts,  a  union  which  proved  fatal  to  British  lib- 
erty, and  ended  in  placing  the  Saxon  heroes  in  the  undisputed 
government  of  Britain.  Many  battles  were  fought  between  the 
Saxons  and  Britons,  before  the  former  were  enabled  to  parti- 
tion the  conquered  into  seven  petty  kingdoms,  called  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy,  and  in  the  battle  of  Aylesford  Horsa  was  slain. 

After  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  in  the  year  488,  Hengist, 
although  aided  by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  was  completely  de- 
feated by  Ambrosius.  Two  years  after  his  defeat  he  died  in 
Kent,  of  which  he  was  king,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Esk, 
v/ho  reigned  for  twenty-four  years  in  perfect  tranquillity.  At 
this  time  Ireland  was  denominated  the  Island  of  Saints,  and 
was  conspicuous  for  its  seminaries  of  learning. 

In  477  -^lla  the  Saxon  effected  a  landing  in  Britain,  and 
having  obtained  many  victories  over  the  natives,  founded  tlie 
kingdom  of  Sussex,  in  491. 

Another  tribe  of  Saxons,  conducted  by  Cedric  and  his  son 
Kenric,  landed  in  the  West  of  Britain,  in  the  year  495  ;  they 
were  called  West  Saxons,  from  the  place  of  landing,  and  founded 
the  kingdom  which  they  called  Wessex ;  it  included  Hants, 
Dorset,  Wilts,  Bucks,  and  the  Isle  of  Wight :  Arthur,  king  of 
the  Silures,  marched  against  these  intruders,  and  acquired 
by  his  victories  over  them  that  vast  renown  which  subse- 
quently entitled  him  to  become  the  hero  of  romance  he  is  now 
known  as. 

In  the  year  511  died  Cedric  the  Saxon,  after  a  residence  in 
Britain  of  twenty  years,  and  having  acquired  extensive  territories, 
and  finally  established  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons,  which 
endured  for  547  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  valiant  and 
wise  Arthur,  king  of  Britain,  who  was  at  last  slain  at  the  battle 
of  Camlan,  in  the  year  542.  Erchenwin  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Essex,  (the  East  Saxons,)  whioh  included  the  present  counties 


WARS  OF  THE  SAXONS.  125 

nf  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of  Hertfordshire.  This  was  the 
fourth  kingdom  of  the  Heptarchy. 

In  the  year  547,  Ida,  the  Saxon,  landed  at  Flamborough,  and 
subdued  the  country  from  the  Humber  to  the  Forth.  He  was 
founder  of  the  fifth  Saxon  kingdom  in  Britain,  under  the  name 
of  Northumberland,  which  endured  for  245  years. 

The  sixth  Saxon  kingdom  in  Britain  is  conjectured  to  hav< 
been  founded  about  the  year  575,  by  Uflfa,  and  called  the  king- 
dom of  the  East  Angles :  it  included  Cambridge,  Suffolk,  and 
Norfolk.  His  successors  were  called  Uffingae,  and  the  kingdom 
which  he  established  lasted  for  218  years.  About  twenty  years 
after  this  period,  Augustine,  the  monk,  with  forty  of  his  order, 
landed  in  Britain,  and  commenced  their  pious  labors  of  convert- 
ing the  Saxons  to  Christianity.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  was 
amongst  the  number  of  those  who  embraced  the  Christian  faith, 
and  Augustine  himself  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  in 
the  year  598,  and  consecrated  its  Archbishop,  by  Eutherius, 
Archbishop  of  Aries.  He  died  in  possession  of  that  see,  a.  d. 
604-5. 

In  585,  Creda  formed  the  kingdom  of  Mercia,  in  which  were 
comprehended  the  midland  coimties  of  Britain,  east  of  the 
Severn. 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy  was  established  in  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century ;  and  St.  Paul's  cathedral  in  London 
founded  by  Ethelbert,  when  London  and  Rochester  were  con- 
stituted episcopal  sees  ;  seven  years  after  which,  Sebert,  king 
of  the  West  Saxons,  founded  St.  Peter's  and  the  Abbey  at 
Westminster. 

In  the  reign  of  Eadbald,  the  son  of  Ethelbert,  the  kingdom 
of  Kent  was  invaded  by  the  Mercian  princes,  and  became  trib- 
utary to  the  kings  of  Mercia  and  Wessex,  about  the  year  685. 

Edwin,  assisted  by  the  king  of  the  East  Angles,  defeated  and 
killed  Ethelfred,  king  of  Northumberland,  and  possessed  himself 
of  his  kingdom  :  Edwin  was  afterwards  slain  by  Penda,  king  of 
Mercia,  and  the  kingdom  of  Northumberland  divided  between 
the  heirs  of  the  two  last  monarchs  :  but  in  the  year  following, 
634,  both  these  princes  were  slain  by  Cadwallon,  prince  of 
Wales,  who  usurped  their  kingdom ;  Penda  had  called  him  in 
to  his  assistance  in  the  invasion  of  Northumberland.  Penda 
was  one  of  the  crudest  tyrants  that  disgraced  the  early  annals 
of  Britain  ;  he  slew  three  kings  of  the  East  Angles.  Edwin,  of 
Northumberland,  assisted  in  the  overthrow  and  death  of  Oswald, 
drove  out  the  king  of  Wessex  from  his  territory,  slew  Amias, 
king  of  Essex,  and  cut  his  army  in  pieces,  but  was  at  length 

11* 


126  ABDICATION  OF  INA. 

killed  by  Oswy,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  of  Northum- 
brians. 

In  the  year  635,  York  was  raised  to  an  archiepiscopal  see, 
and  palls  sent  there  and  to  Canterbury  by  Pope  Honorios 
and  eight  years  afterwards  the  University  of  Cambridge  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Sigebert,  king  of  the  East  Angles. 

Ethelred,  the  youngest  son  of  the  sanguinary  tyrant  Penda, 
succeeded  his  brother  Wulphere,  on  the  throne  of  Mercia,  and 
after  a  dreadful  conflict  with  the  king  of  Northumberland,  be- 
came reconciled  to  that  monarch,  and  governed  peacefully  to 
the  end  of  his  reign,  which  was  occasioned  by  his  voluntary  ab- 
dication in  the  year  704,  in  order  to  embrace  a  monastic  life. 

About  the  year  680,  Egfrid,  the  son  of  Oswy,  ascended  the 
throne  of  the  Northumbrians,  and  after  sustaining  a  bloody  war 
against  Ethelred,  king  of  Mercia,  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Scots  and  Picts.  Having  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
former,  he  pressed  his  conquests  too  far,  and  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Bredei,  the  Pictish  king,  and  his  army  cut  to  pieces  : 
this  occurred  in  the  year  684.  The  following  year  Ceod walla, 
who  ruled  in  Wessex,  extended  his  territories  by  the  reduction  of 
Sussex  and  part  of  Kent,  but  being  conscience-stricken,  by 
reflection  upon  the  cruelties  he  had  committed,  he  made  a 
journey  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  689,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin  Ina.  This  last  prince  possessed  courage,  abilities, 
and  fortune.  He  defeated  the  Welsh,  conquered  Cornwall  and 
Somersetshire,  which  he  annexed  to  his  dominions ;  spent  the 
latter  end  of  his  reign  in  the  estabhshment  of  peace,  and  finally 
withdrawing  to  Rome,  accompanied  by  his  queen,  expired  in  a 
monastery  there,  bequeathing  his  crown  to  Ethelred,  his  brother- 
in-law,  and  the  tax  called  Peter's  Pence  to  the  pope,  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  college  at  Rome.  The  venerable  Bede,  of 
Wearmouth,  in  Durham,  flourished  at  this  period ;  the  fame  of 
his  learning  had  reached  Pope  Sergius,  who  invited  him  to 
Rome,  but  he  declined  the  invitation. 

A  fit  of  devotion,  not  imcommon  in  those  ages,  seized  Cenred, 
the  successor  of  Ethelred,  king  of  Mercia,  who,  in  consequence, 
repaired  to  Rome,  and  embraced  a  monkish  life. 

Eadbert,  king  of  Northumberland,  was  the  last  prince  of  that 
race,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  spirited  defence  of  his 
southern  territories  against  Ethelbald,  king  of  Mercia.  He 
ultimately  retired  to  a  monastery,  and  lived  long  to  regret  the 
folly  of  his  religious  phrensy.  In  755,  Cynewlf,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  was  defeated  by  the  famous  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  and 
afterwards  slain  by  Cyneheard,  who  pretended  a  right  to  his 


THE  FIRST  KING  OF  ENGLAND.  127 

throne.  Offa,  a  spirited  prince,  had  been  elected  to  the  throne 
of  Mercia  by  universal  consent ;  he  reduced  Kent,  conquered 
the  king  of  Wessex,  and  added  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Angles 
to  his  dominions  by  an  act  of  the  basest  treachery.  The  prince 
of  this  last-mentioned  country  having  demanded  the  daughter 
of  Offa  in  marriage,  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Mercia,  and  his 
proposal  accepted  ;  but  upon  his  arrival  was  cruelly  assassinated, 
and  his  territories  usurped  by  the  inhuman  Offa.  Amongst  the 
different  events  of  this  king's  reign,  which  lasted  thirty-nine 
years,  was  the  separation  of  England  from  Wales  by  a  fosse, 
still  called  Offa's  dyke,  and  a  confirmatiom  of  the  grant  of  Pe- 
ter's Pence  to  the  pope. 

Brithric,  a  prince  of  the  royal  line,  ascended  the  throne  of 
the  West  Saxons,  to  the  prejudice  of  Egbert,  whom  he  endeav- 
ored to  get  into  his  power,  but  that  prince  wisely  withdrew  to 
the  court  of  Charlemagne,  and  sought  an  asylum  there  until 
the  death  of  his  rival,  in  the  year  800 ;  when  he  was  recalled 
by  the  nobility.  Brithric  was  cut  off  by  a  poisoned  draught, 
prepared  by  his  queen  for  one  of  the  court  favorites,  which  the 
king  accidentally  tasted. 

Egbert,  seventh  and  last  king  of  Wessex,  united  all  the  oth- 
er Saxon  provinces  with  his  own,  under  the  title  of  the  kingdom 
of  England,  and  thus  extinguished  the  heptarchy,  or  seven 
governments,  established  by  the  East  Angles,  in  the  year  827, 
after  they  had  existed  387  years.  He  reigned  twenty-six  years 
over  Wessex,  ten  years  over  the  united  kingdom,  and  was  the 
first  king  of  England  :  his  death  occurred  in  838. 

In  the  year  838,  Egbert  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ethel  wolf, 
a  prince  of  inferior  abilities,  and  better  calculated  to  rule  a  mon- 
astery than  a  nation.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  with  his 
favorite  son  Alfred ;  imposed  the  tribute  of  Peter's  Pence ; 
shared  his  kingdom  with  his  rebellious  son  Ethelbald ;  which 
last  event  he  did  not  long  survive,  dying  on  the  13th  of  Janu- 
ary, 857,  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years. 

Ethelbald  was  a  profligate  character,  and  had  been  an  un- 
dutiful  son ;  he  ruled  in  conjunction  with  his  brothei  Ethelbert 
for  a  short  period  only,  leaving  him  the  undisputed  occupancy 
of  the  throne  of  his  father. 

In  866  Ethelbert  died,  having  survived  h'«  brother  only  five 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Ethelred. 

Ethelred,  after  a  short  reign,  was  slain,  bravely  fighting 
against  the  Danes,  in  the  year  871,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Alfred  his  brother ;  his  children  being  excluded  from  the  suc- 
cession by  the  will  of  Ethel wc  If.   This  wise,  merciful,  and  brave 


128  REIGN    OP   ALFRED. 

prince,  grandson  of  Egbert,  and  deservedly  sumamed  the  Great, 
overthrew  the  Danes  in  eight  pitched  battles  in  one  year ;  but 
by  a  fresh  invasion  of  barbarians  was  reduced  to  the  utmost 
difficulties,  and  obliged  to  take  shelter,  in  disguise,  in  a  remote 
quarter  of  his  dominions,  until  the  disorder  among  the  Danish 
forces  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  completing  the  conquests  he 
had  so  nobly  begun.  Alfred  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the 
best  and  greatest  monarchs.  He  established  a  regular  mihtia 
throughout  England ;  founded  the  University  of  Oxford ;  es- 
tablished schools  throughout  his  dominions ;  and,  although  he 
was  the  hero  of  sixty-five  battles,  was  the  best  Saxon  poet  of 
his  age ;  translated  Orosius  and  Bede's  Histories,  and  also 
^sop's  Fables  from  the  Greek.  He  composed  a  famous  code 
of  laws,  and  divided  the  kingdom  into  counties,  hundreds,  and 
tithings :  his  survey  of  England  was  the  model  of  King  William's 
Doomsday  Book.  He  died,  aged  sixty-one,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-nine  years,  in  the  year  901,  and  was  interred  at  Win- 
chester. 

Alfred  was  succeeded  by  Edward  the  Elder ;  after  crushing 
a  violent  burst  of  rebellion,  excited  by  Ethelwald,  son  of  Ethel- 
bert,  Alfred's  brother,  he  reigned  in  peace  ;  and  is  considered 
to  have  been  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  active  of  the  Saxon 
kings. 

Athelstan,  the  eighth  king  from  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  suc- 
ceeded Edward.  He  was  the  natural  son  of  that  monarch,  by 
Egwena,  a  peasant's  daughter ;  and  elected  to  the  throne  by 
the  nobility  and  clergy.  Having  distinguished  himself  in  war, 
promoted  commerce,  and  conipleted  the  translation  of  the 
scriptures  begun  under  Alfred,  he  died  at  Gloucester,  in  the 
year  941,  having  reigned  sixteen  years.  In  this  reign  flourished 
the  famous  Guy,  Earl  of  Warwick. 

Edmund,  "  the  pious,"  941 :  this  prince,  who  succeeded  his 
half-brother,  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years,  was  cut  off  by  the 
hand  of  an  assassin,  named  Leolf,  who  had  the  assurance  to  sit 
down  at  a  banquet  where  the  king  was  present ;  and  Edred, 
his  brother,  was  called  to  the  vacant  throne :  he  was  the  first 
monarch  styled  king  of  Great  Britain.  The  Abbot  Dunstan 
ruled  the  monarch  in  this  reign,  but  was  banished  in  the  follow- 
ing reign :  not,  however,  until  his  unkindness  had  broken  the 
king's  heart.  Edwy,  nephew  of  the  last  monarch,  became  his 
successor,  and  is  conspicuous  for  being  made  the  victim  of  the 
hierarchy.  In  958  Edgar,  "the  peaceable,"  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  fifteen  years,  through  monkish  influence, 
and  was  in  consequence  represented  as  a  great  monarch.     Ed- 


WILLIAM    THE    CONQUEROR.  129 

ward  "the  Martyr"  was  crowned  in  975,  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
and  was  the  first  king  to  whom  the  coronation  oath  was  ad- 
ministered ;  he  was  stabbed  by  a  servant  of  queen  Elfrida,  his 
step-mother,  at  the  gate  of  Corfe  Castle,  and  was  sumamed 
the  Martyr.  His  half-brother,  Ethelred,  succeeded  him  at  the 
early  age  of  twelve  years,  who  proved  unequal  to  a  contest 
with  the  Danes,  and  fled  to  Normandy.  Having  caused  Gu- 
nilda,  sister  of  Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  to  be  assassinated,  that 
prince  took  possession  of  his  throne,  to  which  Ethelred  only  re- 
turned upon  Sweyn's  death,  in  1014. 

Edmund  Ironside  succeeded  to  his  father's  throne  and  mis- 
fortunes at  the  same  time,  1016;  he  divided  his  kingdom  with 
Canute  the  Dane,  son  of  Sweyn,  after  which  he  was  assassina- 
ted. Canute  left  Nonvay  to  his  natural  son  Sweyn,  Denmark 
to  Hardicanute,  and  England  to  Harold :  this  prince,  sumamed 
Harefoot,  reigned  four  years,  and  died  in  1039,  little  regretted. 
The  throne  was  left  open  to  Hardicanute,  brother  of  the  last 
king :  he  was  odious  to  the  nation,  and  died  of  intemperance 
at  Lambeth  in  1041.  The  Danish  line,  consisting  of  Canute, 
Harold  Harefoot,  and  Hardicanute,  becoming  extinct,  the' Saxon 
line  offered  two  candidates  for  the  throne,  Edward,  son  of  that 
Ethelred  whom  Sweyn  deposed,  and  Edward  son  of  Edmund 
Ironside,  who  had  shared  the  kingdom  with  Canute  the  Great. 
The  former  was  chosen,  the  latter  consigned  to  exile  in  Hun- 
gary. Edward  was  controlled  by  the  priesthood,  from  whom 
he  obtained  the  surname  of  Confessor ;  after  a  peaceful  reign, 
he  died  in  the  year  1066.  He  was  the  last  of  the  Saxon  line 
that  ruled  in  England.  Harold  II.,  son  of  Godwin,  Earl  of 
Kent,  succeeded  to  the  exclusion  of  Edgar  Atheling,  the  right- 
ful heir,  but  he  suffered  for  his  ambition,  being  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  upwards  of  600  years  after  the  foundation 
of  the  Saxon  monarchy,  which  was  terminated  there,  upon 
which  William  the  Norman  ascended  the  throne  witi.  the  sur- 
name of  Conqueror. 


1 30  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR  —HENRY  1 


ABSTRACT 

OF   THE 

ENGLISH  REIGNS, 

FROM  THE  CONQUEST,  WITH  THE  CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 

Happy  Britannia ! 
Rich  is  thy  soil,  and  merciful  thy  clime, 
Uimiatched  thy  guardian  oaks. 

Thomson's  Summer. 

William  the  Conqueror,  1066  :  he  caused  a  general  survey 
of  the  lands  to  be  made,  and  entered  in  the  Doomsday  Book,  in 
imitation  of  the  Roll  of  Winton,  made  by  order  of  king  Alfred ; 
in  his  reign  began  the  first  wars  with  France ;  the  Norman  laws 
and  language  were  introduced  ;  many  forts  built.  He  reigned 
with  arbitrary  sway  ;  dispeopled  Hampshire  for  thirty-six  miles, 
to  extend  the  New  Forest ;  and  instituted  the  curfew  bell ;  died 
1087.  Contemporary  sovereigns  : — Philip  I.  of  France ;  Henry 
IV.  emperor  of  Germany ;  Malcolm  III.  and  Donald  VII.  of 
Scotland. 

WilHam  Rufus,  1087,  was  cruel  and  irreligious :  he  invaded 
Normandy,  his  brother's  dukedom ;  engaged  in  the  crusades ; 
and  was  killed  by  an  arrow,  shot  at  a  stag  by  his  bow-bearer. 
Sir  Walter  Tyrrel,  a  Norman  knight,  in  the  New  Forest,  Hamp- 
shire. Contemporaries  to  William  Rufus,  Henry  I.,  and  Stephen : 
— Louis  VI.  and  Louis  VII.  of  France  ;  Lothaire  II.,  Conrad  III. 
and  Frederick  I.  of  Germany ;  Alexander  and  David  of  Scot- 
land.    Reigned  from  1087  to  1100. 

Henry  I.,  sumamed  Beauclerc,  youngest  son  of  William  I., 
having  seized  the  royal  treasures  at  Winchester,  procured  him- 
self to  be  recognised  king  of  England ;  he  restored  to  the  Eng- 
lish the  privilege  of  using  fire  and  candle  by  night ;  recalled 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  reinstated  the  church  in 
its  possessions  ;  he  made  war,  in  person,  upon  his  brother 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy  ;  possessed  himself  of  his  dukedom, 
and  confined  the  duke  in  Caerdifi"  Castle,  where  he  died  after  an 
imprisonment  of  twenty-eight  years,  and  was  interred  at  Glouces- 
ter :  he  levied  a  tax  of  three  shillings  on  every  hide  of  land, 
md  raised   in  this  manner  £824,000,  as  a  portion   for    he 


STEPHEN  TO  RICHARD  I.  131 

daughter  Matilda.  In  this  reign  the  institution  of  the  order  of 
Knights  Templars  took  place,  A.  d.  1118:  Henry's  abilities 
were  shining,  but  his  conduct  exceptionable.  Reigned  from 
1100  to  1135. 

Stephen  of  Blois,  earl  of  Boulogne  and  Montaign,  and  grand- 
son of  William  I.,  in  1135  seized  upon  the  throne,  in  the  absence 
of  the  Empress  Matilda,  or  Maude,  daughter  and  heiress  to 
Henry  1. :  he  seized  the  late  king's  treasure,  amounting  to 
£100,000  ;  reduced  Normandy ;  quarrelled  with  the  clergy ; 
carried  on  a  war  with  Matilda,  with  various  success.  In  1141 
he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  and  thrown  into  Gloucester 
Castle,  from  which  being  liberated,  he  renewed  the  war.  Ma- 
tilda's son,  Henry,  at  length  concluded  a  peace  with  Stephen, 
when  it  was  agreed  that  the  latter  should  retain  the  crown 
during  his  hfe,  and  that  Henry  Plantagenet  should  be  his  suc- 
cessor, and  that  the  castles  built  by  Stephen's  permission, 
amounting  to  1,100,  should  all  be  demolished.  Stephen  and 
Matilda  reigned  from  1135  to  1155. 

Henry  II.,  surnamed  Plantagenet,  a  wise  and  great  prince, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1154 :  he  demohshed  the  castles  erected 
by  the  nobles,  and  endeavored  to  restrain  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  clergy,  but  was  opposed  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  who  had 
first  been  his  favorite,  afterwards  his  tormentor.  He  subdued 
the  Welsh,  who  did  homage,  and  swore  allegiance  to  him  ; 
landed  in  Ireland,  and  received  the  submission  and  oaths  of 
several  Irish  princes  ;  did  penance  at  Becket's  tomb,  and  re- 
ceived forty  lashes  from  the  monks  of  Canterbury;  divided 
England  into  six  circuits,  and  appointed  for  each  three  judges, 
A.  D.  1176  ;  he  died  uttering  imprecations  against  his  own  chil- 
dren, which  the  bishops  present  could  not  persuade  him  to 
revoke :  the  well-known  fair  Rosamond  lived  in  this  reign. 
Contemporaries  of  Henry  II. : — Frederick  I.  of  Germany ;  Louis 
VII.  and  Phihp  III.  of  France ;  David,  Malcolm  IV.;  and 
William,  kings  of  Scotland.     Reigned  from  1155  to^lQO. 

Richard  I.,  surnamed  Cceur  de  Lion,  1189  :  engaged  in  the  holy 
wars ;  conquered  the  Island  of  Cyprus  ;  obtained  a  victory 
over  Saladin,  and  repaired  the  dismantled  cities  of  Ascalon, 
/oppa,  and  Ccesarea ;  took  3,000  loaded  camels  and  4,000 
mules,  with  other  valuable  spoils,  which  he  distributed  amongst 
his  soldiers.  In  returning  to  England  he  was  shipwrecked  near 
Aquileia,  but  taking  the  way  of  Vienna  was  imprisoned  by 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  who  delivered  him  to  the  avaricious 
emperor,  by  whom  he  was  detained  until  ransomed  by  his  sub- 
jects.    He  defeated  the  French  repeatedly,  but  was  at  length 


132  JOHN  10  EDWARD  II. 

slain  by  a  poisoned  arrow  discharged  by  Bertrand  de  Gourdon, 
while  engaged  in  besieging  the  castle  of  Chains,  in  1199.  The 
castle  belonged  to  Vidomar,  lord  of  Limoges,  and  a  vassal  of 
Richard's  :  having  retained  a  treasure  which  belonged  of  right 
to  the  feudal  lord,  Richard  undertook  his  chastisement,  and 
perished  in  the  attempt.  Contemporaries  of  Richard  I. : — 
Henry  VI.  and  Phihp  I.  of  Germany ;  Philip  II.  of  France ; 
Sancho  I.  of  Portugal ;  Canute  V.  of  Denmark ;  and  Wil- 
liam, surnamed  the  lion,  of  Scotland.  Reigned  from  1190  to 
1199. 

John,  1199  :  he  murdered  his  nephew;  quarrelled  with  the 
pope,  and  was  excommunicated;  signed  Magna  Charta,  the 
bulwark  of  English  liberty ;  entered  into  a  war  with  France, 
and  his  barons ;  and  died  deservedly  detested.  Contemporaries 
of  John  : — ^The  Popes  Innocent  III.  and  Honorius  III. ;  Otho 
IV.  and  Frederick  II.  of  Germany ;  Wilham  and  Alexander  of 
Scotland.     From  1199  to  1216. 

Henry  III.,  1216,  was  weak  and  irresolute :  his  was  a  long 
minority :  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  violate  Magna  Charta,  his 
barons  rebelled,  a  civil  war  followed,  but  an  accommodation 
took  place :  Magna  Charta  was  solemnly  confirmed,  and  they 
returned  to  their -allegiance.  The  famous  Earl  of  Leicester  was 
his  chief  opponent.  Contemporaries  of  Henry  III. : — Frederick 
II.  of  Germany;  Louis  VIIL,  Louis  IX.,  and  Philip  III.  of  France ; 
Alexander  II.  and  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland.  From  1216  to 
1272. 

Edward  L,  1272 :  he  conquered  Wales,  is  said  to  have  mas- 
sacred the  Welsh  bards,  enacted  useful  laws,  and  was  called 
the  English  Justinian  :  he  granted  the  cinque  ports  their  privi- 
leges. The  renowned  William  Wallace  and  the  celebrated  Roger 
Bacon  flourished.  Edward's  heart  was  buried  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Contemporaries  of  Edward  L  : — Rodolph  L,  Adolphus,  and  Al- 
bert, of  Germany ;  Phihp  HI.  and  Philip  IV.  of  France ;  Alex- 
ander III^  John  Baliol,  &nd  Robert  Bruc-e,  of  Scotland.  From 
1272  to  1307. 

Edward  IL,  surnamed  Caernarvon,  1307  ;  encouraged  Piers 
Gaveston  and  other  favorites,  and  lost  the  affection  of  his  peo- 
ple :  he  wanted  his  father's  strength  of  mind  to  keep  the  barons 
in  obedience ;  his  queen,  at  their  head,  made  war  upon  him ;  he 
was  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  was  afterwards  mur- 
dered in  Berkeley  Castle,  Gloucestershire.  Contemporaries  of 
Edward  II. : — Henry  VIIL  and  Louis  IV.,  emperors  of  Ger- 
many ;  Philip  IV.,  Louis  X.,  Philip  V.,  and  Charles  IV.  of  France , 
Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland. "  From  1307  to  1327. 


EDWARD  III.  TO  HENRY  VI.  133 

Edward  III.,  surnamed  Windsor,  1327 :  he  subdued  Scotland, 
and  defeated  the  French  in  the  battles  of  Cressy  and  Poictiers ; 
had  tvY'O  kings  (John  of  France,  and  David  of  Scotland)  pris- 
oners in  his  court ;  encouraged  the  various  manufactures :  his 
conquests  added  more  to  the  glory  than  the  real  happiness  of 
his  subjects,  and  he  left  his  kingdom  in  an  impoverished  condi- 
tion. Gunpowder  was  invented  in  this  reign,  by  Swartz,  a 
monk  of  Cologne.  Contemporaries  of  Edward  III.: — Louis 
IV.  and  Charles  IV.  of  Germany;  Charles  IV.,  Phihp  VI., 
John  I.,  and  Charles  V.  of  France ;  Robert  Bruce,  David  II., 
and  Robert  II.,  (the  first  of  the  Stuarts,)  of  Scotland.  From 
1327  to  1377. 

Richard  11. ,  1377,  was  thoughtless  and  prodigal :  the  insur- 
rection headed  by  Wat  Tyler,  on  account  of  the  poll-tax,  was 
in  his  reign ;  the  king  suppressed  it  in  person.  The  Earl  of 
Hereford,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  was  banished,  but 
returned  before  the  expiration  of  the  time,  seized  upon  the 
throne,  and  confined  Richard  in  the  castle  of  Pontefract,  where 
he  was  starved.  Contemporaries  of  Richard  11. : — Charles  IV. 
and  Wenceslaus  of  Germany ;  Charles  V.  and  Charles  VI.  of 
France  ;  Margaret  of  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  ;  Robert 
II.  and  Robert  III.  of  Scotland.     From  1377  to  1399. 

Henry  IV.,  1399,  reigned  with  wisdom  and  prudence ;  the 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  assisted  him  in  gaining  the 
throne,  rebelled,  but  was  defeated  ;  and  his  son,  Henry  Hotspur, 
slain.  The  English  marine  was  greatly  increased,  but  learning 
in  general  was  at  a  very  low  ebb.  Contemporaries  of  Henry 
IV. : — Robert  Le  Pit,  and  Sigismund  of  Germany  ;  Charles  VI. 
of  France ;  Margaret  and  Eric  XIII.  of  Denmark  and  Sweden ; 
and  Robert  IIL  of  Scotland.     From  1399  to  1413. 

Henry  V.,  1413,  was  powerful  and  victorious  ;  his  conquests 
in  France  were  numerous  and  splendid  ;  he  gained  the  battles 
of  Harfleur  and  Agincourt,  and  was  declared  next  heir  to  the 
French  monarchy.  In  his  reign  the  followers  of  Wickliflfe  were 
severely  persecuted.  Henry  died  in  the  midst  of  victory.  Con- 
temporaries of  Henry  V. : — Sigismund  of  Germany  ;  Charles  VI. 
of  France  ;  Eric  XIII.  of  Sweden  and  Denmark ;  Robert  III.  of 
Scotland.     From  1413  to  1422. 

Henry  VI.,  1422 :  he  was  crowned  king  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. During  his  minority  France  was  lost  by  the  misconduct 
of  his  generals ;  the  Maid  of  Orleans  lived,  who  pretended  to  be 
divinely  commissioned  to  rescue  her  country  from  the  English. 
The  first  quarrels  occurred  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster ;  civil  wars  followed  ;  and  Henry  became  the  tool  of 

12 


134  EDWARD  IV.  TO  HENRY  VIII. 

each  party  in  turn,  till  he  was  at  ler^th  murdered  in  the  Tower 
by  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  was  afterwards  Richard 
III.  Contemporaries  to  Henry  VI. : — Sigismund,  Albert  IT. 
and  Frederick  III.  of  Germany ;  Charles  VII.  and  Louis  XI.  of 
•France ;  Eric  XIV.  of  Denmark  and  Sweden ;  Robert  I.,  James 
I.,  James  II.,  and  James  III.  of  Scotland.  From  1422  to 
1471. 

Edward  IV.,  1471.  The  civil  wars  continued,  which  de- 
stroyed the  flower  of  the  English  nobility  ;  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, however,  notwithstanding  these  disadvantages,  gradually 
increased  ;  Margaret  of  Anjou,  wife  of  Henry  VI.,  died  in 
extreme  misery  ;  her  son.  Prince  Edward,  was  killed ;  and  Ed- 
ward IV.'s  claim  to  the  throne  remained  undisputed.  Contem- 
poraries of  Edward  IV. : — Frederick  II.  of  Germany ;  Mahomet 
II.,  first  emperor  of  the  Turks ;  Louis  XL  of  France ;  Christian 
I.  of  Denmark;  and  James  HI.  of  Scotland.  From  1471  to 
1483. 

Edward  V.,  1483,  succeeded.  Being  a  child,  his  uncle,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  was  chosen  protector ;  he  murdered  the 
young  king,  and  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  in  the  Tower  • 
and  seized  upon  the  vacant  throne,  six  months  after  the  death 
of  Edward  IV.,  his  brother.  Contemporaries  to  Edward  V., 
the  same  as  Edward  IV.     1483. 

Richard  HI.,  1483  :  he  waded  to  the  throne  through  the  blood 
of  his  nearest  relations  ;  his  private  character  was  detestable  ; 
but,  as  a  king,  he  managed  the  helm  with  success,  being  valiant 
and  prudent.  The  Earl  of  Richmond  asserted  his  superior  right 
to  the  throne ;  Richard  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth, 
and  Richmond  proclaimed  king.  Contemporaries  to  Richard 
III.,  the  same,  the  two  last  kings  reigned  so  short  a  time.  From 
1483  to  1485. 

Henry  VII.,  1485  :  he  was  prudent  and  avaricious.  One 
quarter  of  the  gl  ^be  was  discovered  in  his  reign,  by  Columbus. 
Henry  suppressed  the  insurrections  occasioned  by  Perkin  War- 
beck  and  Lambert  Symnel ;  protected  the  people ;  humbled 
the  power  of  his  barons  ;  and  left  his  kingdom  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  Contemporaries  to  Henry  VII. : — Frederick  HI.  and 
Maximilian  of  Germany ;  Bajazet  II.  of  the  Turks ;  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain ;  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  of  France ; 
John  of  Denmark  and  Sweden ;  and  James  HI.  and  James  IV. 
of  Scotland.     From  1485  to  1509. 

Henry  VIII.,  1509  :  he  separated  from  the  Romish  church, 
and  was  excommunicated  -took  the  title  of  supreme  head  oi 
the  church  of  England,  and  dissolved  the  religious  foimdations. 


EDWARD  VI.  TO  JAMES  I.  135 

Calvin  and  Luther,  the  reformers,  lived;  the  famous  Wolsey 
exercised  unlimited  power,  as  prime  minister.  Henry  encouraged 
the  arts  and  sciences ;  was  cruel  and  tyrannical :  married  six 
wives,  and  beheaded  two.  Contemporaries  to  Henry  VIII  :— 
Charles  V.  of  Germany  and  Spain ;  Louis  XII.  and  Francis  I. 
of  France ;  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden ;  James  IV.  and  James 
V.  of  Scotland.     From  1509  to  1547. 

Edward  VL,  1547,  had  great  natural  abilities :  Seymour, 
duke  of  Somerset,  governed  the  kingdom  during  Edward's 
minority.  He  encouraged  the  Reformation,  and  died  very  young, 
leaving  the  crown  to  the  accomplished  Lady  Jane  Grey,  his 
cousin,  she  being  a  Protestant.  Contemporaries  to  Edward 
VL  : — Charles  V.  of  Germany ;  Henry  II.  of  France ;  and  Mary 
of  Scotland.     From  1547  to  1553. 

Mary,  1553,  succeeded,  after  deposing  ^'ane  Grey,  who  reigned 
only  ten  days,  and  was  afterwards  beheaded  by  Mary's  order. 
Her  reign  was  cruel,  and  stained  with  blood  :  she  restored  the 
Catholic  religion  ;  persecuted  and  burnt  the  Protestants  ;  mar- 
ried Phihp,  king  of  Spain,  son  of  the  famous  Charles  V.  ;  and 
died,  after  a  short  reign,  stained  with  every  kind  of  barbarity  : 
Cardinal  Pole  and  twelve  bishops  died  of  the  same  distemper 
that  carried  off  this  cruel  queen.  Contemporaries  of  Mary 
were  the  same.     From  1553  to  1558. 

Elizabeth,  half-sister  to  Mary,  and  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn, 
1558  :  she  was  prudent,  accomplished,  and  skilled  in  the  art  of 
governing  a  mighty  empire.  The  Spanish  Armada  was  de- 
feated by  her  admirals  :  she  established  the  reformed  religion  ; 
supported  the  Protestant  interest  abroad ;  and  founded  a  uni- 
versity in  Dublin.  In  her  reign  the  East  India  Company  was 
established ;  but  her  glory  was  tarnished  by  the  unjust  im- 
prisonment and  execution  of  her  rival,  the  unfortunate  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots.  Contemporaries  to  Elizabeth  : — Ferdinand  I., 
Maximilian  II.,  Rodolphus  II.,  of  Germany ;  Henry  II.,  Charles 
IX.,  Henry  III.,  and  Henry  IV.,  of  France ;  Philip  II.  and  Philip 
III.,  of  Spain ;  Mary  and  James  VI.  of  Scotland.  From  1558 
to  1603. 

James  I.,  of  England,  and  VI.  of  Scotland,  1603,  had  high 
notions  of  kingly  power ;  he  was  a  learned  pedant,  and  particu- 
larly attached  to  peace.  The  famous  gunpowder  plot  was  dis- 
covered by  him.  His  reign  was  inglorious;  stained  with  the 
death  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh ;  and  his  favorites  managed  the 
affairs  of  the  state  with  little  reputation.  Contemporary  with 
James  I.  of  England  and  Scotland  : — Rodolphus  II.,  Matthias  I.; 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Germany ;  Henry  IV.'  and  Louis  XII.  of  France 


156  CHARLES  I.  TO  WILLIAM  III. 

Philip  III.  and  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  and  Portugal.     From  1603 
to  1625. 

Charles  I.,  1625,  received  from  his  father  the  same  unconsti- 
tutional ideas  of  royal  prerogative:  his  people  began  to  feel 
their  own  weight  in  the  scale  of  empire,  and  refused  to  pay  the 
taxes  he  imposed ;  a  civil  war  ensued,  Charles  was  defeated, 
taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded  by  the  parliament,  in  the  year 
1649.  Contemporary  to  Charles: — Ferdinand  II.  and  Ferdi- 
nand III.  of  Germany ;  Louis  XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France ; 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain;  and  John  IV.  of  Portugal.  From  1625 
to  1649. 

Oliver  Cromwell  then  usurped  the  regal  power,  under  the 
specious  title  of  Protector  of  the  Realm.  He  rose  from  a  low 
station  to  the  high  office  he  at  last  attained  ;  defeated  the  wan- 
dering son  of  Charles  I. ;  reduced  Ireland  to  obedience ;  regu- 
lated the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery;  raised  the 
English  name  among  foreign  nations ;  and  at  his  death  ordered 
£is  son  Richard  to  be  declared  the  Protector :  he  died  on  the 
3d  of  September,  a  day  on  which  he  had  twice  triumphed  over 
his  enemies,  and  was  interred  in  Henry  VII.'s  chapel ;  his  re- 
mains were  exhumed,  hung  in  chains  at  Tyburn,  and  buried  un- 
der the  gallows,  but  removed  secretly,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  again  interred  in  the  centre  of  Red  Lion  Square,  London. 
From  1654  to  1658. 

Charles  11.  restored,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Monk, 
and  from  Richard  Cromwell's  inefficiency,  1660.  He  was  profli- 
gate and  capricious,  but  reigned  absolutely :  his  brother  James, 
a  Roman  Catholic,  was  appointed  his  successor :  many  imagin- 
ary plots  distinguish  this  reign,  in  which  Algernon  Sydney  and 
Lord  Russell  were  executed.  Contemporary  with  Charles  II. : 
— Leopold  of  Germany ;  Louis  XIV.  of  France ;  Philip  IV.  and 
Charles  II.  of  Spain ;  and  Charles  XI.  of  Sweden.  From  1661 
to  1685. 

James  IL,  1685,  determined  to  abolish  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion, and  substitute  his  own  will  for  the  law  of  the  land :  he 
was  reconciled  to  the  pope ;  but  the  nation  resisted  his  attempts, 
called  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  throne,  and  compelled  James 
to  abdicate.  He  died  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  in  France.  Con- 
temporary with  James  IL,  the  same  as  Charles  IL  From  1685 
to  1688. 

William  III.,  and  Mary,  (daughter  of  James  IL,)  1688.  In 
this  reign  France  was  humbled :  the  Bill  of  Rights  sanctioned 
by  parUament ;  the  laws  generally  revised ;  and  the  Court  of 
Marches,  in  Wales,  abolished.    Contemporary  with  William  III. : 


ANNE  TO  GEORGE  III.  137 

— ^Leopold  of  Germany ;  Louis  XIV.  of  France ;  Charles  II.  and 
Philip  V.  of  Spain ;  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden;  and  Peter  the  Great 
of  Russia.     From  1688  to  1Y02. 

Anne,  daughter  of  James  II.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1*702; 
her  reign  was  brief  but  brilhant ;  the  victories  gained  by  her 
army,  under  Marlborough,  at  Blenheim,  Oudenard,  Malplaquet, 
and  Ramillies,  humbled  the  pride  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  added  little 
more  than  miUtary  renown  to  British  interests.  In  this  reign 
took  place  the  legislative  union  of  England  and  Scotland :  now 
also  arose  the  political  distinction  of  Tory  and  Whig ;  and  from 
the  number  of  elegant  writers  who  were  contemporaries  with 
queen  Anne,  her  reign  is  called  the  Augustan  age  of  literature. 
Contemporaries  of  Anne: — Leopold,  Joseph  I.,  and  Charles 
VI.  of  Germany ;  Louis  XIV.  of  France ;  Phihp  V.  of  Spain ; 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden ;  and  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  Reigned 
from  1702  to  1Y14. 

George  I.,  elector  of  Hanover,  1714.  He  was  wise,  prudent, 
and  cautious  in  choosing  his  ministers.  In  1715,  the  Pretender's 
rebellion  broke  out ;  and  the  South  Sea  Scheme,  which  ruined 
thousands,  occurred  in  this  reign.  Contemporaries  with  George 
I.,  the  same  as  Anne.     From  1714  to  1727. 

George  II.,  1727.  Another  rebellion,  1745,  ended  in  the 
total  defeat  of  the  Pretender  at  Culloden.  North  America  be- 
came dependent  on  Britain;  English  arms  everywhere  victo- 
rious ;  Walpole  and  Chatham  successively  prime  ministers.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson.  Contemporaries  of  George  II. : 
— Charles  VII.  and  Francis  I.  of  Germany;  Louis  XV.  of  France ; 
Philip  v.,  Ferdinand  VL,  and  Charles  III.  of  Spain;  Frederick  II. 
and  Frederick  III.  of  Prussia ;  and  Catharine  of  Russia.  From 
1727  to  1760. 

George  III.,  1760.  He  was  the  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  grandson  of  George  II.  In  this  reign  the  American 
war  broke  out,  and  ended  in  the  separation  of  those  countries 
called  "  the  United  States"  from  England.  In  th3  East  Indies 
vast  accessions  of  territory  were  acquired,  greater  in  extent 
than  those  lost  in  America.  In  1800  the  legislative  union  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain  was  effected,  by  which  the  Irish 
parhament  was  closed,  and  the  Irish  representatives  allowed 
seats  in  the  imperial  parliament.  The  victories  of  the  Nile 
and  Trafalgar,  in  the  latter  of  which  the  gallant  Nelson  fell, 
completely  destroyed  the  naval  resources  of  Napoleon,  and 
saved  England  from  invasion.  In  1811,  owing  to  the  mental 
infirmity  of  the  king,  his  son  the  Prince  of  Wales  was  appointed 
regent,  and  his  regency  has  been  rendered  one  of  the  most 

12* 


138  GEORGE  IV.  TO  WILLIAM  IV. 

memorable  eras  in  Britisli  history,  by  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
fought  on  the  18th  of  June,  1815,  in  which  Napoleon  the  Great 
was  completely  defeated  by  Arthur,  Duke  of  WeUington. 
George  III.  died  on  the  29th  of  January,  1820,  having  reigned 
just  sixty  years.  Contemporaries  of  George  III. : — Francis  I. 
and  Francis  II.  of  Germany;  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.  of 
France ;  the  overthrow  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  other 
events  mentioned  elsewhere ;  Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand  VII.  of 
Spain ;  Paul  and  Alexander  of  Russia  ;  Washington,  Jefferson, 
Adams,  and  Monroe,  presidents  of  the  United  States.  From 
1760  to  1820. 

George  IV.  succeeded  his  father  in  1820,  his  regency  having 
lasted  nine  years.  Both  his  regency  and  reign  owe  all  their 
lustre  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  all  their  blemishes  to  the 
king's  selfish  character.  His  daughter  and  only  child,  the  Prin- 
cess Charlotte,  was  married  to  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  (after- 
wards king  of  Belgium,)  but  died  in  giving  birth  to  a  first  child. 
When  he  had  attained  an  advanced  age,  he  caused  his  consort, 
(who  was  also  his  cousin,)  queen  Caroline,  to  be  impeached  of 
high  crimes,  &c.,  but,  after  a  long  and  disreputable  trial  before 
the  Lords,  she  was  acquitted.  This  unhappy  princess  soon  after 
died  of  grief.  In  this  reign  the  ex-emperor  Napoleon  died  in 
exile  at  St.  Helena,  and  was  interred  on  the  island,  from  which, 
however,  his  remains  were  removed,  nineteen  years  after  his  de- 
cease, and  entombed  in  the  church  of  the  Hospital  of  Invalids 
in  Paris.  It  was  in  George  IV. 's  reign  that  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics were  emancipated  by  the  recommendation  and  by  the  influence 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  Contemporaries  of  George  IV. : — 
Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  of  France ;  Alexander  of  Russia ; 
Frederick  IV.  of  Prussia ;  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain.  The  war 
between  the  Carlists  and  the  queen's  party,  to  place  the  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  on  the  throne;  Adams,  (John  Quincy,)  and  Jack- 
son, presidents  of  the  United  States ;  Pope  Pius  VII.  From 
1820  to  1830. 

William  IV.,  the  third  son  of  George  III.,  succeeded  his 
eldest  brother  in  1830.  This  short  reign  was  disturbed  by  po- 
litical dissensions  between  Whigs  and  Tories,  in  which  he  acted 
with  impartiality.  It  was  during  this  reign  that  the  grant  of 
twenty  millions  sterling  was  made  by  parliament,  for  the  total 
abohtion  of  the  slave-trade;  and  in  the  year  1832,  Lord  Grey, 
then  prime  minister,  succeeded,  after  a  violent  struggle  of  par- 
ties, in  carrying  the  Reform  Bill :  the  object  of  this  measure  was 
the  extension  of  the  elective  franchise,  and  opening  the  House 
of  Commons  to  what  was  then  called  the  popular  party.     Con- 


VICTORIA.  139 

lemporaries  of  William  IV. : — Alexander  and  Nicholas  I.  of 
Russia;  Frederick  IV.  of  Prussia;  Charles  X.  and  Louis  Philippe 
I.  ul  the  house  of  Orleans,  of  France ;  Jackson  and  Van  Buren, 
presidents  of  the  United  States;  Pope  Gregory  X.  From  1830 
to  1837. 

Victoria,  1837,  only  child  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  fourth  son  of 
George  III.,  succeeded  her  uncle  William  IV.,  at  the  early  age 
of.  eighteen  years.  Excluded  by  the  Sahc  law  from  the  throne 
of  Hanover,  that  trust  devolved  upon  her  uncle  Ernest,  Duke  of 
Cumberland.  Her  majesty  espoused  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  on  the  10th  of  February,  1840,  and  in  1841  gave  birth 
to  a  prince,  her  second  child,  who  is  Duke  of  Cornwall  by  in- 
heritance, and  Prince  of  Wales  by  creation.  In  this  reign 
Whig  and  Tory  distinctions  were  revived;  the  two  Canadas 
were  united ;  poor-laws  introduced  into  Ireland ;  the  first  stone 
laid  or  a  new  Parliament  House,  and  of  a  Royal  Exchange  in 
London,  which  had  both  been  destroyed  by  fire  ;  the  dockyards 
of  Devonport  and  Woolwich  discovered  to  be  on  fire,  and  the  ar- 
mory of  the  Tower  of  London  burned  down.  Her  majesty's 
naval  forces  were  employed,  in  conjunction  with  the  allied  Eu- 
ropean sovereigns,  in  rescuing  Syria  from  Mehemet  Ali,  the 
pacha  of  Egypt,  and  in  making  war  upon  the  Chinese  for  having 
excluded  British  vessels  from  their  ports.  The  English  brought 
the  Chinese  government  to  terms,  and  secured  to  Christians 
many  privileges,  which  until  that  time  they  had  not  enjoyed 
in  China.  Contemporary  with  Victoria : — Pope  Gregory  X. ; 
Louis  Philippe  of  France;  Isabella  of  Spain;  Nicholas  of  Russia; 
Frederick  IV.  of  Prussia ;  Harrison,  Tvler,  and  Polk,  presidents 
of  the  United  States. 


140  FERGUS  I    TO  FFRGUS  II. 


AN  ABSTRACT 


SCOTTISH  REIGNS. 

FROM  FERG7S  THE  FIRST,  THE  FOUNDER  OF  THE  SCOTTISH  THRONJ!, 
TO  MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

A  manly  race. 
Of  unsubmitting  spirit,  wise,  and  brave, 
Trained  up  to  hardy  deeds,  soon  visited 
By  learning,  when  before  the  Gothic  rage 
She  took  her  western  flight. 

Thomson's  Autumn. 

When  are  the  Scots  and  Picts  first  spoken  of  in  history  ?  In 
the  fifth  century :  the  former  inhabited  the  eastern  shores  of 
Scotland,  as  far  south  as  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  as  far  north 
as  the  island  extended.  The  name  of  Picts  seems  to  have  been 
given  them  by  the  Romans,  from  the  habit  of  staining  their 
bodies  when  going  to  battle :  the  term  picti  signifies  painted. 
They  were  probably  of  Gothic  origin,  though  some  think  they 
were  descendants  of  the  ancient  Caledonians,  who  were  Celts 
mingled  with  Gothic  settlers.  The  Scots  were  of  Irish  origin : 
a  colony  of  this  pie,  from  Ulster,  the  northern  province  of 
Ireland,  settled  on  the  coast  of  Argyleshire,  under  Fergus,  who 
had  been  called  over  to  assist  the  Scots  against  the  Picts  and 
Britons,  about  the  year  330  b.  c,  and  gradually  occupied  the 
whole  of  the  western  coast  of  Scotland.  This  prince  was  lost 
at  sea,  off  Carrickfergus  in  Ireland,  which  bears  his  name. 

Twenty-five  pagan  kings  ruled  Scotland  from  the  death  of 
Fergus  to  the  reign  of  Donald  the  First,  a.  d.  199,  who  was  the 
first  Scottish  king  converted  to  Christianity,  and  it  was  he  also 
who  made  his  subjects  first  acquainted  with  money  coined  from 
precious  metals.  During  this  reign  Caledonia  was  invaded  by 
Severus,  who  built  a  boundary  wall  to  the  Roman  provinces 
from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  that  of  Clyde. 

Fergus  II.  succeeded  Eugenius,  in  the  year  404.  Having 
lived  abroad  and  in  retirement  during  twenty-seven  years,  (ac- 
cording to  the  Black-book  of  Paisley,)  he  returned  to  aid  in 
expelling  the  Romans,  ajcompanied  by  Dunstan,  king  of  the 


KENNETH  II.  TO  MALCOLM  III.  141 

Picts,  and  Dionethus  a  Briton.  He  long  and  successfully  op- 
posed the  enemy,  but  was  at  last  slain  fighting  against  Max- 
imianus  :  Dunstan  his  friend  shared  his  fate,  but  Dionethus 
effected  his  escape,  not  however  before  he  had  received  a 
grievous  wound.  Fergus  II.,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Scots,  possessed  piety,  courage,  and  abilities :  he  reigned  honor- 
ably for  sixteen  years,  and  was  a  benefactor  of  his  coimtry. 

After  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle  between  these  two 
people,  in  which  Drushenus,  the  Pictish  king,  was  slain,  Ken- 
neth II.,  king  of  the  Scots,  finally  ascended  the  Pictish  throne 
in  833,  and  united  both  states  into  one  kingdom,  comprising 
the  whole  country  north  of  the  wall  of  Antonine  :  the  routed 
Picts  found  an  asylum  in  England. 

Gregory,  the  seventy-third  king,  ascended  the-  throne  in  875. 
He  was  justly  entitled  to  his  surname  "the  Great."  He  sub- 
dued the  Picts,  vanquished  the  Danes,  putting  Hardicanute, 
their  king,  to  flight,  in  Northumberland :  defeated  and  slew 
Constantino  king  of  the  Britons,  in  the  battle  of  Lochmaben ; 
chastised  the  Irish,  who  had  invaded  Galloway,  and  added 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  to  his  dominions.  He  died  in 
892,  after  a  glorious  and  most  exemplary  reign  of  eighteen 
years.  It  was  not  for  his  military  abiUties  alone  that  he  was 
admired  by  foreign  princes,  for  it  was  his  reputation  for  learn- 
ing, wisdom,  and  justice  that  led  Alfred  the  Great  to  court  his 
friendship. 

Malcolm  II.,  "  the  victorious,"  eighty-third  king,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1004  :  he  repelled  the  Danes,  improved  the  laws, 
and  formed  a  titled  aristocracy.  After  a  splendid  reign  of 
thirty  years,  he  became  suddenly  sordid  and  unjust,  and  was 
assassinated  by  his  attendants  as  he  slept. 

Duncan,  1033.  A  prince  of  pacific  temper,  and  great  vir- 
tues :  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  Macbeth,  his  general, 
and  iistinguished  friend. 

Macbeth,  1040.  This  tyrant  usurped  the  throne  to  the  pre- 
judice of  Malcolm,  son  of  Duncan,  who,  with  his  younger 
brother  Donaldblain,  took  refuge  in  England.  Macbeth's  reign 
was  short  as  cruel,  being  killed  in  a  war  with  the  Enghsh,  who 
armed  in  favor  of  Duncan's  children. 

Malcolm  III.,  1057,  long  an  exile  in  England,  ascended  the 
tlirone  of  his  ancestors  upon  the  death  of  Macbeth  :  he  intro- 
duced among  the  Scots  the  custom  of  giving  surnames  ;  and, 
during  the  crusades,  assisted  Godfrey,  Earl  of  Boulogne,  in  the 
reduction  of  Jerusalem.  This  wise  and  valiant  monarch  was 
killed,  with  one  of  his  sons,  at  the  siege  of  Alnwick. 


142  DONALD  VII.  TQ  ALEXANDER  III. 

Donaldblain,  or  Donald  VII.,  1092,  uncle  to  Malcolm  III.; 
his  reign  was  short,  being  dethroned  by  Duncan,  natural  son  of 
Malcolm. 

Duncan  IL,  1094.  The  transient  authority  which  this  prince 
possessed  was  marked  chiefly  by  his  vices :  he  died  without 
children. 

Edgar,  1096,  son  of  Malcolm  III.,  was  a  good  king,  and 
cherished  the  interests  of  his  subjects. 

On  the  death  of  Edgar,  his  brother  Alexander  I.,  surnamed 
Acer,  the  Sharp,  succeeded  1107.  The  early  years  of  his  life 
and  reign  were  marked  by  rude  and  boisterous  conduct,  but  re- 
penting of  his  folly  and  ferocity  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  works 
of  peace.  Under  this  new  feehng  he  built  the  church  of  St. 
Michael  at  Scone,  and  founded  a  monastery  there :  driven  by  a 
tempest  to  ^mona  Isle,  in  gratitude  for  his  preservation,  and 
for  his  maintenance  by  the  hermits,  he  dedicated  a  church  there 
to  St.  Columb  :  he  also  enriclied  the  monks  of  St.  Andrew's, 
and  completed  Dunfermline  church,  which  his  father  had  begun. 
He  had  espoused  the  princess  Sibylla,  daughter  of  William  the 
Norman,  but  left  no  issue. 

Pavid  I.,  contemporary  with  Stephen,  king  of  England,  1124. 
His  valor  was  unquestioned,  and  his  liberality  to  churchmen 
great :  he  compiled  a  code  of  Scottish  laws,  built  many  rehgious 
edifices,  and  reigned  gloriously. 

Malcolm  IV.,  1153,  grandson  of  David.  His  actions  are 
httle  celebrated,  and  his  reign  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the 
origin  of  the  power  engrossed  by  the  Stuart  family ;  Walter, 
one  of  the  king's  courtiers,  being  appointed  seneschal,  or  stew- 
ard of  Scotland,  from  which  employment  his  descendants  de- 
rived their  family  name. 

William,  surnamed  the  Lion,  1165,  was  frequently  at  war 
with  Engl^«id ;  and  being  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Aln- 
wick, by  Henry  II.,  that  monarch  refused  to  release  him  till  he 
had  done  homage  in  his  own  name,  and  those  of  his  suc- 
cessors. 

Alexander  II.,  1214,  son  of  William  the  Lion :  he  was  often 
at  war  with  the  Norwegians,  who  invaded  the  Scottish  isles. 

Alexander  III.,  1249  :  a  prince  of  great  virtues.  In  this 
reign  the  Norwegians  were  completely  defeated,  and  obliged  to 
retire  from  the  isles.  Alexander's  issue  failing,  the  crown  was 
claimed  by  the  descendants  of  David,  Earl  of  Himtingdon, 
brother  to  William  the  Lion. 

1285.  An  interregnum  of  some  years  succeeded,  whilst  the 
rival  candidates  asserted  their  claims,  all  descended  from  David 


THE  BRUGES.  143 

in  different  degrees  of  affinity.  Of  twelve  competitors,  the  most 
distinguished  were  John  Baliol,  great-grandson  to  David,  by 
his  eldest  daughter ;  and  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  by  the  young- 
est. The  nobles  agreeing  to  refer  the  decision  of  this  question 
to  Edward  I.,  of  England,  he  adjudged  the  throne  to  Baliol,  as 
his  vassal,  and  treacherously  asserted  English  supremacy. 

John  Baliol,  1299,  was  more  the  creature  of  Edward  than  a 
monarch  possessing  uncontrollable  authority.  Gilbert  de  Um- 
phraville,  Earl  of  Angus,  and  William  Wallace,  were  the  fore- 
most of  the  few  who  ventured  still  to  assert  the  independence 
of  Scotland,  refusing  subjection  to  Baliol,  as  the  deputy  of 
Edward.  Soon  after  this,  Baliol,  upon  the  most  frivolous  pre- 
tences, was  dethroned  by  the  Enghsh  king,  and,  retiring  into 
England,  lived  in  obscurity  upon  a  pension. 

Robert  Bruce,  1306.  On  the  death  of  his  ancestor  (one  of 
the  candidates  for  the  throne)  Robert  entertained  jealous  fears 
of  William  Wallace,  but  the  forces  of  William  engaging  with 
Edward  I.'s  army,  at  Falkirk,  were  defeated,  and  their  leader 
suffered  death.  Robert,  upon  this,  engaged  the  Scots  in  his 
own  interest,  the  nobles  seated  him  upon  the  throne,  and  he 
was  afterwards  known  as  the  Bruce  of  Bannockburn,  by  his 
signal  defeat  of  Edward  II. ;  a  victory  still  remembered  by  the 
Scots  with  triumph.  The  remainder  of  Robert's  reign  was  a 
series  of  uninterrupted  successes. 

David  Bruce,  or  David  II.,  1329,  son  of  Robert;  his  minority 
was  disturbed  by  Edward,  son  of  John  Baliol,  who,  assisted  by 
Edward  III.,  seized  the  throne,  and  compelled  David  to  retire 
into  France.  The  nobles,  however,  disgusted  with  the  conduct 
of  young  Baliol,  remstated  David,  Some  years  after  the  Scot- 
tish king  invaded  England,  in  the  absence  of  its  prince ;  he  was 
made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross,  near  Durham, 
and  detained  eleven  years  in  captivity  in  the  castle  of  Odiham, 
but  afterwards  ransomed.  Leaving  no  issue,  the  crown  was 
claimed  by  the  Stuart  family. 

Robert  Stuart,  1370,  the  descendant  of  Walter,  seneschal  of 
Scotland,  claimed  in  right  of  his  affinity  by  marriage  to  the 
daughter  of  David  Bruce,  being  then  only  Baron  of  Renfrew. 
He  was  a  prince  of  uncommon  abilities  and  prudence. 

Robert  III.,  1390,  son  of  Robert  Stuart,  was  weak  in  intel- 
lect, and  deficient  in  courage.  He  committed  the  toils  of  gov- 
ernment to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  who  took  every 
method  to  aggrandize  his  own  family.  Robert's  second  son, 
James,  was  detained  prisoner  in  England,  on  his  way  to  France ; 
during  the  nmeteen  years  he  soent  in  that  country,  his  father's 


144  JAMES    I.    TC    JAMES    V, 

dominions  were  subject  to  repeated  commotions,  and  his  eldest 
brother  was  assassinated  by  tlie  Duke  of  Albany's  command. 
Robert  soon  after  died,  oppressed  with  age  and  misfortunes. 

James  I.,  1423.  This  prince  had  seen  in  foreign  courts  the 
different  systemsof  jurisprudence,  and  endeavored,  by  abridging 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  to  assert  the  just  prerogatives  of  the 
crown :  but  though  he  understood  the  principles  of  government 
admirably,  the  nation  was  not  prepared  to  receive  them :  and 
in  the  struggle  for  power,  he  was  assassinated  by  some  of  the 
nobility,  in  a  monastesy  near  Perth,  whither  he  had  retired. 
James  instituted  the  office  of  lords  of  session. 

James  II.,  1437,  pursued  his  father's  plan  of  humbhng  the 
nobility;  and  seconded  by  his  ministers,  aimed  at  restoring 
tranquilUty  and  justice  ;  but  himself  the  slave  of  turbulent  pas- 
sions, he  stabbed  William,  Earl  of  Douglas,  to  the  heart,  in  a 
sudden  fit  of  anger  ;  and  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  be- 
trayed by  the  next  earl,  he  proceeded  to  the  ruin  of  his  family, 
and  declared  his  intention  to  subvert  the  feudal  law ;  but  the 
splinter  of  a  cannon-ball,  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh  castle,  put 
an  end  to  his  schemes  and  life,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty. 

James  III.,  1460  :  he,  with  inferior  abihties,  embraced  the 
same  object,  neglecting  those  of  high  birth,  and  lavishing  his 
favors  and  affection  upon  a  few  court  sycophants.  The  exas- 
perated nobles  flew  to  arms ;  James  met  them  in  battle,  his 
army  was  routed,  and  himself  slain. 

James  IV.,  1488,  was  generous,  accomplished,  and  brave : 
war  was  his  passion ;  and,  adored  by  a  people  who  wished,  by 
attachment  to  his  person,  to  expiate  their  offences  to  his  father, 
he  led  a  gallant  army  on  to  the  invasion  of  England :  the  battle 
of  Flodden  Field  proved  the  superior  skill  of  the  English  ;  and 
James,  with  thirty  noblemen  of  the  highest  rank,  and  an  infinite 
number  of  barons,  fell  in  the  contest;  leaving  an  infant  of  a 
year  old  to  wield  the  Scottish  sceptre. 

James  V.,  1513.  The  Duke  of  Albany,  his  near  relation, 
was  declared  regent ;  but  the  king,  at  thirteen,  assumed  the 
reins  of  government ;  he  had  a  great  but  uncultivated  mind, 
and  while  he  repressed  the  consequence  of  the  nobles,  he  pro- 
tected commerce,  and  reformed  the  courts  of  justice.  The  re- 
formed clergy  in  Scotland  now  first  launched  their  thunders 
against  the  papal  see,  though  without  the  concurrence  of  James. 
Quarrelling  with  Henry  VIII.,  he  assembled  an  army ;  the 
barons,  piqued  at  his  contempt  of  them,  reluctantly  complied 
with  his  summons ;  and,  more  intent  upon  retaliating  their  in- 
juries than  anxious  for  their  own  glory,  suffered  themselves  to 


MARY,    QUEEN    OF    SCOTS.  145 

be  shamefully  defeated.     James  felt  this  affront  so  keenly,  that 
he  died  of  grief. 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  daughter  of  James  V.  and  Mary  of 
Guise,  succeeded  in  1542,  when  only  a  few  days  old.  She  was 
educated  in  France ;  and  in  her  minority,  the  Earl  of  Arran 
and  Mary  of  Guise  were  successively  regents.  Mary,  who  had 
espoused  Francis  II.  of  France,  upon  his  death  returned  to 
govern  her  native  country:  she  then  married  the  Earl  of  Darn- 
ley,  but  soon  disgusted  with  his  conduct,  was  privy  to  his  vio- 
lent death,  and  immediately  affianced  to  Both  well,  his  murderer : 
the  nobles,  incensed  to  the  highest  degree,  rose  against  her, 
and  being  taken  prisoner,  she  was  compelled  to  sign  a  resigna- 
tion of  the  crown,  in  favor  of  her  son.  Escaping  from  custody, 
she  fled  into  England,  where  EHzabeth,  betraying  the  confi- 
dence reposed  in  her  by  Mary,  unjustly  sentenced  her  to  death. 
The  beauty,  misfortunes,  and  we  may  add  the  crimes,  of  this 
celebrated  woman,  have  rendered  the  annals  of  her  reign  pe- 
culiarly interesting. 

James  VI.,  1567,  only  son  of  Mary,  by  the  Earl  of  Daniley ; 
he  reigned  long  before  his  mother's  death.  In  this  period  he 
diminished  the  power  of  the  church,  now  declared  Protestant 
by  act  of  parliament,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  Danish 
king.  Upon  the  death  of  his  relation,  Elizabeth  of  England,  he 
ascended  her  throne ;  and  the  histories  of  Scotland  and  England 
have  siiLce  been  inseparable. 

13 


146  PHARAMOND  TO  CLOVIg  I. 


AN    ABSTRACT 


EEIGNS  OF  THE  FRENCH  KINGS, 

FROM   PHARAMOND,   FOUNDER    OF    THE    MONARCHY,    TO    PHIIJP  I., 
CONTEMPORARY  WITH  "WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. 

Turn  we, 
To  vigorons  soils,  £ind  climes  of  fair  extent, 
Where  by  the  potent  sun,  elated  high. 
The  vineyard  swells  refulgent  to  the  day. 

TH0M30N. 

A  CONFEDERACY  of  German  tribes,  having  conquered  the 
Lombards,  assumed  the  name  of  Franks,  (the  Free.) 

Pharamond,  first  king  of  the  French,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
420  :  he  was  famed  as  a  wanior  and  politician. 

Clodion,  son  of  Pharamond,  428,  was  continually  at  war  with 
the  Romans,  and  lost  several  battles. 

Merovee,  first  of  the  Merovingians,  447.  The  annals  of  his 
reign  are  lost  in  clouds  of  mist  and  obscurity,  and  history  says 
little  about  him.  The  name  of  Gaul  was  now  finally  exchanged 
for  that  of  France. 

Childeric  L,  son  of  Msrovee,  458  ;  he  abandoned  himself  en- 
tirely to  his  pleasures,  and  the  French  lords  uniting  to  dethrone 
him.  Count  Giles  was  chosen  king  in  his  stead  ;  but  upon  his 
promise  of  better  conduct,  he  was  recalled,  and  again  seated 
upon  the  throne. 

Clovis  I.,  of  the  Merovingian  race,  481.  In  his  reign  Christi- 
anity became  the  religion  of  the  state  ;  he  performed  many  great 
exploits  ;  founded  seyeral  churches  and  monasteries  ;  and  pub- 
lished the  Sahc  laws  :  he  was  famed  for  his  valor,  but  it  was 
tinctured  with  inhumanity.  He  extinguished  the  Roman  do- 
minion in  Gaul  by  the  victory  of  Soissons,  in  486,  over  the 
Roman  general  Syagrius  ;  reduced  the  Alemanni,  Bretons,  and 
Visigoths  ;  extended  his  dominions  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine 
to  Toulouse  ;  and  made  Lutetia,  or  Paris,  his  capital.  He  had 
been  converted  to  Christianity  by  his  wife  Clotilda,  daughter  of 
Childeric,  whom  he  married  in  493  ;  and  he  crowned  himself  at 
Rheims,  when  he  was  anointed  with  the  miraculous  oil,  said  to 


CHILDEBERT  I.  TO  CLOVIS  III.  147 

have  be>3n  brought  down  from  heaven  hj  a  dove^  whence  hia 
successors  received  from  the  pope  the  title  of  "  Most  Christian 
King,"  and  "  eldest  son  of  the  church."  He  died  in  511,  and 
is  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  in  Paris. 

Childebert  I.,  son  of  Clovis,  511.  He  laid  the  foundation 
of  Notre  Dame,  a  celebrated  church  at  Paris ;  reigned  with 
wisdom  and  moderation,  and  was  universally  regretted  by  hia 
people. 

Clotaire  I.  succeeded  his  brother  Childebert,  558,  having 
before  shared  in  the  government.  He  was  a  cruel  barbarian, 
killed  two  of  his  nephews,  and  aimed  at  the  life  of  the  third  : 
his  reign  was  one  continued  scene  of  horrors  and  murders. 

Caribert,  son  of  Clotaire,  562.  This  prince  having  raised, 
successively,  to  a  share  in  his  throne,  two  females  of  the  lowest 
birth,  the  Bishop  of  Paris  thought  proper  to  excommunicate 
him.  Caribert  had  a  taste  for  hterature,  and  some  historians 
represent  him  as  a  good  king. 

Chilperic  I.,  brother  of  Caribert,  567.  This  prince,  for  his 
repeated  cruelties,  was  called  the  Nero  of  France :  he  loaded 
his  subjects  with  taxes,  and  many  on  this  account  were  com- 
pelled to  quit  their  native  soil.  He  at  last  met  with  the  just 
recompense  of  his  crimes,  and  was  assassinated. 

Clotaire  II.,  584.  He  was  victorious  over  the  Saxons,  and 
reigned  successfully. 

Dagobert  I.,  628,  succeeded  his  father  Clotaire.  He  was 
enslaved  by  superstition,  and  bestowed  great  part  of  his  revenues 
upon  the  monks,  who,  as  a  recompense,  loaded  him  with  flattery. 

Clovis  II.,  son  of  Dagobert,  638.  In  this  reign  France  was 
afflicted  with  a  great  famine,  and  the  king,  to  remove  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  poor,  caused  the  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  with 
which  the  tombs  of  the  nobility  were  decorated,  to  be  sold,  and 
the  money  distributed  among  them. 

Clotaire  III.,  660.  In  this  reign,  and  the  two  preceding  it, 
the  power  assumed  by  the  mayors  of  the  palace  (or  chief 
ministers)  was  so  excessive,  that  the  kings  were  merely  the 
tools  of  profligate  and  ambitious  men,  who,  under  this  title, 
bore  the  supreme  sway. 

Childeric  II ,  668.  A  weak  and  irresolute  prince  :  his  coun- 
sels quickly  fell  into  contempt. 

Thiery  I.,  673.  The  mayors  of  the  palace,  in  this  reign, 
usurped  the  regal  power,  and  the  only  shadow  of  royalty  he 
possessed  was  tlie  title  of  king, 

Cl6vis  III.,  son  of  Thiery,  690.  This  prince  died  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  and  performed  no  action  worth  recording. 


148  CHILDEBERT  II.  TO  CHARLEMAGNE. 

Childebert  II.,  695.  He  was  surnamed  the  Just,  and  exer^ 
cised  the  confined  authority  allowed  him  by  the  mayors,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  gain  the  hearts  of  his  people. 

Dagobert  IL,  Til.  He  was  twelve  years  of  age  when  he 
ascended  the  throne,  and  died  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  leaving 
only  one  son,  who  was  judged  by  the  mayors  of  the  palace  un- 
fit to  sxjtpport  the  weight  of  government,  and  therefore  set  aside 
by  them. 

Clotaire  IV.,  718,  reigned  only  one  year ;  his  indolence  was 
such  tnat  he  never  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  state,  but  left  all 
to  his  ministers. 

Chiiperic  IL,  719.  He  emerged  from  that  indolence  in  which 
the  former  Merovingian  kings  had  been  plunged  ;  and  asserted 
his  right  to  govern  alone,  against  Charles  Martel,  a  famous 
mayor  of  the  palace,  but  with  little  success. 

I'niery  IL,  721.  During  his  minority  Charles  Martel  contin- 
ued to  hold  the  sovereign  authority,  (while  Thiery  bore  the  name 
of  king,)  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  wisdom  and  valor. 

Childeric  IH.,  743,  surnamed  the  Simple,  was  the  last  of  the 
Merovingian  race.  Charles,  surnamed  Martel,  or  the  Hammer, 
from  an  iron  mace  which  he  bore  in  battle,  died  in  this  reign. 
He  was  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  routed  the  Saracens  with 
great  slaughter  at  Poictiers.  Pepin  and  Carloman,  the  sons  of 
Charles,  shared  the  supreme  authority,  and  dethroned  Childeric, 
who  died  in  the  monastery  where  he  was  confined. 

Pepin,  the  Little,  or  Short,  760,  son  of  Charles  Martel,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  undivided  authority,  and  was  particularly  dis- 
tinguished in  the  history  of  the  second  or  Carlovingian  race. 
He  abohshed  the  office  of  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  governed 
alone.  Pepin  was  a  celebrated  hero,  and  defeated  the  Saxons, 
Sclavonians,  and  Bavarians. 

Charlemagne  and  Carloman,  the  sons  of  Pepin,  768.  Carlo- 
man  soon  quitted  the  throne,  and  assumed  the  Benedictine  habit ; 
Charlemagne  then  reigned  alone.  This  great  prince  trod  in  the 
steps  of  his  father ;  literature  and  the  sciences  now  dawned 
upon  the  nation ;  and  Roland,  or  Orlando,  the  celebrated  French 
hero,  flourished  at  this  period.  He  extended  his  dominions 
from  the  Ebro  to  the  Lower  Elbe,  the  Soale,  and  the  Raab ; 
from  the  North  Sea  and  the  Eyder  to  the  Garigliano,  in  Naples. 
He  was  master  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy ;  and  wrested 
Spain  from  the  Saracens.  The  emperors  of  Turkey  and  Persia 
sought  his  friendship ;  the  latter  conferring  upon  him  the 
lieutenancy  of  the  Holy  Land.  In  800  he  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror of  the  West,  and  solemnly  crowned  by  the  pope. 


LOUIS  I.  TO  CHARLES  THE  SIMPLE.  149 

Louis  I.,  surnamed  the  Deboilnaire,  814,  the  son  of  Charle- 
raagne.  He  was  weak  and  superstitious  in  the  highest  degree, 
was  twice  deposed  and  taken  prisoner  by  his  children ;  yet, 
upon  being  restored  to  the  throne,  he  pardoned  their  offences. 
Soon  after  this  he  died  ;  and  his  children,  contending  for 
empire,  fought  the  first  famous  battle  of  Fontenoy,  in  which 
100,000  French  were  killed.  Under  this  prince  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces. 

Charles  the  Bald,  grandson  of  Louis  I.,  840.  By  the  treaty 
of  Verdun,  the  separation  of  the  German  and  Italian  crowns 
from  the  French  was  completed,  when  Charles  obtained  France. 
The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  France,  properly  speaking,  be- 
gins, therefore,  with  the  treaty  in  843.  In  this  reign  the 
Normans  invaded  and  plundered  France.  Charles  was  hated 
by  his  subjects,  had  few  virtues  and  many  vices.  He  was 
poisoned  by  a  Jewish  physician,  named  Ledecias,  in  whom  he 
placed  great  confidence. 

Louis  II.,  surnamed  the  Stammerer,  877.  From  this  reign 
the  kings  of  France  ceased  to  possess  the  empire  of  Germany, 
acquired  in  that  of  Charlemagne.  Louis  lavished  the  honors 
and  estates  of  the  crown  ;  and  his  abilities  were  by  no  means 
adequate  to  his  high  station. 

Louis  III.,  and  Carloman,  the  children  of  Louis  the  Stam- 
merer, 879  ;  they  reigned  jointly  with  great  harmony.  The 
No'Tnans  again  ravaged  the  French  provinces,  but  were  attacked 
and  defeated  by  the  brothers.  Louis  died  first,  and  Carloman 
did  not  long  survive,  being  mortally  wounded  by  one  of  his 
servants,  who  was  aiming  a  javelin  at  a  boar. 

Charles  the  Fat,  884,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  invited  to 
accept  the  French  monarchy.  He  was  pious  and  devout ;  but 
wanting  ^biliti3s  and  resolution,  incurred  the  contempt  of  his 
people,  and  was  declared  incapable  of  holding  the  reins  of 
government.  He  reunited,  for  a  short  time,  the  dominions  of 
Charlemagne,  but  his  subjects  unanimously  revolted,  and  a  few 
months  of  disease  and  misery  (in  which  he  was  compelled  to 
beg  his  bread)  were  followed  by  his  death. 

Eudes,  888,  was  elected  after  the  death  of  Charles  :  his  reign 
was  short,  turbulent,  and  glorious.  He  resigned  the  throne  to 
Charles  the  Simple,  son  of  Louis  the  Stammerer;  and  died 
shortly  after,  beloved  and  regretted. 

Charles  the  Simple,  898  :  he  obtained  this  degrading  name 
from  the  little  improvement  he  made  of  the  victories  he  gained 
over  the  Duke  of  Lorraine.  Rollo,  the  famous  Norman  chief, 
took  the  city  of  Rouen.     Charles's  people  deserted  Lim,  and 

13* 


150  RODOLPH  TO  PHILIP  1 

set  up  a  new  king,  called  Rodolph,  or  Randolph.  Charles  died 
in  captivity. 

Rodolph,  who  had  been  crowned  before  the  death  of  Charles, 
succeeded  924.  He  defeated  the  Nomians  and  Hungarians. 
After  his  death  Fmnce  was  again  divided  by  rival  claimants. 

Louis  IV.,  son  of  Charles  the  Simple,  936  ;  he  seized  upon 
Normandy,  and  promised  Hugh,  Count  of  Paris,  to  share  it 
with  him,  but  having  broken  his  word,  Hugh  became  his  enemy. 
His  anny  was  afterwards  routed  by  the  Danes ;  Louis  was 
carried  prisoner  to  Rouen,  and  committed  to  the  custody  of 
Hugh,  who  obliged  him  to  enter  Normandy,  and  restore  it 
again  to  Richard,  the  lawful  possessor. 

Lothaire,  son  of  Louis,  964  :  he  possessed  courage,  activity, 
and  vigilance.  Hugh,  Count  of  Paris,  having  ceded  his  rights 
to  the  throne,  Lothaire  gratefully  acknowledged  the  favor,  by 
bestowing  upon  him  the  province  of  Aquitaine.  Hugh  died  in 
this  reign,  leaving  a  son,  who  was  afterwards  the  renowned 
Hugh  Capet.  Lothaire  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  his 
queen. 

Louis  v.,  surnamed  the  Slothful,  986  :  he  reigned  only  one 
year,  and  was  poisoned.  Hugh  Capet  had  been  appointed  his 
governor,  but  the  wise  counsels  of  Hugh  were  totally  thrown 
away  upon  this  headstrong  prince,  who  was  hated  for  his  vices, 
and  despised  for  his  folly.  He  was  the  last  of  the  Carlovingian 
race. 

Hugh  Capet,  the  powerful  duke  of  the  Isle  of  France,  Count 
of  Paris  and  Orleans,  was  raised  by  the  nobihty  to  the  throne, 
987.  His  reign  was  happy  and  glorious.  His  people  felt  and 
admired  his  virtues  ;  and  he  transmitted  to  his  son  a  peaceful 
and  undivided  inheritance. 

Robert,  the  son  of  Hugh  Capet,  succeeded  996.  France  ex- 
perienced the  sad  eflfects  of  a  dreadful  famine  in  this  reign.  The 
pope  threatened  to  excommunicate  Robert  for  marrying  Bertha, 
who  was  related  to  his  father.  His  sons  rebelled,  instigated  by 
their  mother,  but  he  compromised  matters  with  them,  and  died 
highly  regretted. 

Henry  L,  son  of  Robert,  1031  :  he  was  brave,  pious,  and  had 
many  other  good  qualities.  The  custom  of  duelling  was  so 
prevalent  in  this  reign,  that  Henry  enacted  a  severe  law  to  put 
a  stop  to  it.  His  people  were  frequently  led  out  to  war ;  for 
as  he  was  jealous  of  the  Normans,  he  tried  every  method  to 
check  their  conquests. 

Phihp  L,  contemporary  with  William  the  Conqueror,  1060. 
Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  regent  in  his  muiority.     Ava- 


LOUrS  VI.  AND  LOUIS  VII.  161 

rice,  perfidy,  and  ingratitude  were  the  striking  features  in  tliig 
king's  character.  The  crusades  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  Saracens  were  preached  up  in  this  reign,  by 
Peter  the  Hermit.  Philip's  quarrels  with  William  of  England 
were  frequent,  and  their  issue  bloody.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  Phihp  abandoned  himself  wholly  to  voluptuous  pleasures ; 
and,  guided  by  his  queen,  an  ambitious  and  wicked  woman, 
incurred  the  just  hatred  of  his  subjects. 


CONTmUATION 

OF  THE 

FRENCH  REIGNS, 

FROM  LOUIS  VI.  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

Louis  VL,  surnamed  the  Gross,  assumed  the  government  in 
1108,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Philip.  He  had  all  the  quali- 
ties necessary  to  form  a  good  king.  He  granted  charters  of 
mcorporation  to  large  towns,  as  a  counterbalance  to  the  feudal 
lords  :  he  caused  schools  to  be  opened  in  all  convents,  and 
estabhshed  local  militia.  He  challenged  Henry  I.  of  England 
to  single  combat,  to  save  greater  effusion  of  blood,  but  his  in- 
vitation being  declined,  he  encountered  and  defeated  the  English 
in  the  field  of  battle.  Henry  now  sought  the  aid  of  his  son-in- 
law,  the  emperor  of  Germany,  but  Louis  displayed  the  oriflamme, 
or  banner  of  St.  Denis,  round  which  the  nation  rallied,  and 
deterred  the  invaders.  On  his  death-bed  he  is  said  to  have 
delivered  his  ring  to  his  son,  with  these  words :  "  May  the 
power  with  which  you  will  shortly  be  invested  be  considered  as  a 
sacred  trust,  committed  to  you  by  Providence,  and  for  which 
you  must  be  accountable  in  a  future  state."  In  this  reign  the 
free  cities  arose,  bondage  gradually  disappeared,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  civil  existence  of  the  people. 

Louis  VII.,  surnamed  the  Young,  to  distinguish  him  from  his 
father,  whose  authority  he  had  shared,  ascended  the  throne, 
1137.  He  commanded  a  fine  army,  the  flower  of  France,  in 
the  Holy  Land ;  but  disease,  and  the  calamities  of  war,  had  so 
decreased  it,  that  on  his   return,  only  the  shattered  remains 


152  PHILIP  II.  TO  PHILIP  in 

accompanied  him.  During  the  absence  of  Louis,  his  kingdom 
suffered  all  the  miseries  of  depopulation.  He  was  continually 
embroiled  with  England,  and  his  own  barons.  In  this  reign  the 
troubadours,  a  kind  of  wandering  French  poets,  resembling  the 
Welsh  bards,  first  appeared. 

Philip  II.,  surnamed  Augustus,  1180.  He  engaged  in  the 
crusades  with  Richard  I.  of  England.  The  monarchs  quarrelled ; 
and  on  his  return  home,  Phihp  attacked  Richard's  French  do- 
minions. He  defeated  the  Emperor  Otho,  and  the  Earl  of  Flan- 
ders, at  Bouvines,  banished  the  Jews  from  France,  and  curbed 
the  influence  of  the  clergy.  He  then  endeavored  to  reform  the 
manners  of  his  people,  protected  and  embellished  those  cities 
that  acknowledged  his  sway,  and  released  the  people  from  the 
oppression  of  the  soldiery.  The  orders  of  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans  were  established,  and  this  was  the  Philip  who  en- 
gaged in  the  cause  of  Arthur,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  against  John, 
king  of  England. 

Louis  VIIL,  son  of  Phihp,  1223.  He  reigned  only  three 
years,  and  in  that  time  dispossessed  the  English  of  some  lands 
in  France.  He  is  said  to  have  died  by  poison  ;  and  left  in  his 
will  legacies  to  2,000  leprous  persons,  as  that  disorder  then 
raged  dreadfully. 

Louis  IX.,  the  Saint,  son  of  Louis  VIIL,  1226.  He  was  a 
good  but  unfortunate  prince.  Undertaking  an  expedition  to 
the  Holy  Land,  he  was  defeated,  and  made  prisoner  by  the 
Saracens  :  he  might  have  escaped,  but  nobly  disdained  to  for- 
sake his  subjects  in  their  distress.  On  his  return,  after  being 
ransomed,  he  foohshly  resolved  to  engage  in  another  crusade  ; 
and,  besieging  Tunis  in  person,  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague.  His 
confessor,  Robert  de  Sorbon,  instituted  the  University  at  Paris, 
called  the  Sorbonne,  which  afterwards  became  the  most  famous 
theological  school  in  Europe.  By  the  introduction  of  a  new 
administration  of  justice,  he  gave  new  power  to  the  crown. 

Philip  III.,  surnamed  the  Hardy,  1270.  He  continued  the 
wars  against  the  infidels,  till  he  compelled  the  king  of  Tunis  to 
sue  for  peace.  Thus  ended  the  crusades,  in  which  2,000,000 
men  had  been  at  different  times  engaged.  In  this  reign  was 
perpetrated  that  massacre  of  the  French  called  the  Sicilian 
Vespers :  Philip  conciliated  the  friendship  of  the  English  Ed- 
ward I.,  and  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  the  Sicilians,  in 
order  to  support-the  claims  of  his  son  to  that  throne.  A  gen- 
eral corruption  of  manners  scandalously  prevailed  at  this  period  ; 
and  the  Albigenses,  who  dwelt  in  the  south  of  France,  were 
now  most  inhumanly  persecuted  :  the  introduction  of  letters  of 


HILIP  IV.  TO  PHILIP  VI.  153 

nobility  in  this  reign,  was  another  blow  to  the  already  declining 
power  of  the  nobles. 

Philip  ly.,  (Le  Bel,)  1285.  This  prince  continued  the  war 
with  England,  and  joined  Baliol,  king  of  Scotland,  against  Ed- 
ward. Philip  was  perpetually  embroiled  with  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.,  and  Guy,  Count  of  Flanders  ;  he  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  latter.  The  introduction  of  the  Third  Estate,  a 
deputation  of  the  cities,  in  the  general  assemblies  of  the  clergy 
and  nobility,  was  an  important  measure  of  this  king ;  with  the 
assistance  of  these  feudal  estates,  Philip  resisted  the  interdict 
of  Boniface  and  the  clergy.  In  this  reign  many  of  the  Knights 
Templars,  with  their  grand-master,  were  burnt  alive  at  Paris,  in 
presence  of  the  king ;  an  act  characteristic  of  an  age  in  which 
justice  was  the  victim  of  power :  and  the  Swiss  asserted  their 
independence,  by  the  three  cantons  of  Switz,  Uri,  and  Under- 
wald,  throwing  off  the  Austrian  yoke. 

Louis  X.,  surnamed  Hutin,  1314.  He  strangled  his  queen, 
on  account  of  her  repeated  enormities,  and  espoused  Clemence, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Hungary.  On  his  accession,  finding 
the  treasury  in  an  exhausted  state,  he  accused  Marigni,  who 
had  been  his  father's  minister,  as  the  source  of  the  national  ne- 
cessities, and  Louis  seized  upon  his  fortune  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  the  coronation :  this  unfortunate  nobleman  in  vain  endeavored 
to  vindicate  his  honor ;  he  was  condemned  to  expire  on  a  gibbet ; 
and  the  king,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years,  died  by  poison, 
given  him  by  the  friends  of  Marigni. 

Philip  v.,  surnamed  the  Young,  succeeded  his  brother,  by 
virtue  of  the  Salic  law,  which  excluded  the  daughter  of  Louis, 
in  1316.  A  contagious  disorder  raged  in  France,  and  the  su- 
perstitious people  imputed  it  to  the  Jews  having  poisoned  the 
waters.  Philip 's  kingdom  was  torn  by  faction ;  and  he  died, 
after  a  short  reign  of  six  years. 

Charles  IV.,  1322.  This  prince  was  the  last  of  the  Capetine 
line.  He  expelled  the  Lombards  and  Italians  from  his  do- 
minions, for  their  extortion ;  and  countenanced  Isabella,  of 
England,  the  queen  of  Edward  IL,  (and  the  sister  of  Charles,) 
in  her  opposition  to  her  husband  and  his  favorites.  Charles 
tried  unsuccessfully  to  reunite  the  kingdoms  of  France  and 
Germany.     He  had  xieither  shining  talents  nor  great  vices. 

Philip  VI.,  the  first  of  the  line  of  Valois,  1328.  Edward  IIL, 
of  England,  asserted  his  claim  to  the  French  -crown ;  Phihp, 
however,  succeeded,  by  the  Salic  law,  and  called  upon  Edward 
to  do  him  homage  ;  but  receiving  no  satisfactory  reply,  he  seized 
upon  Ed  Award's  French  territories,  who,  to  recover  his  dominions. 


154  JOHN  TO  HENRY  VI. 

performed  the  subjection  required.  Biscontants  were  again  re» 
newed,  and  the  Enghsh,  in  a  naval  engagement,  took- 230  of  the 
French  ships:  Philip  also  lost  30,000  seamen,  and  two  admirals. 
Four  years  after  was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of  Cressy ; 
and  Hugh,  Count  of  Dauphine,  annexed  his  dominions  to  the 
French  crown,  on  condition  that  the  king's  eldest  son  should 
bear  the  title  of  Dauphin. 

John,  surnamed  the  Good,  succeeded  his  father,  1350.  This 
prince  was  very  unfortunate  in  his  wars  with  England  :  in  the 
battle  of  Poictiers  he  and  his  son  Philip  were  taken  prisoners, 
and  the  French  army  totally  routed.  On  promise  of  paying  a 
ransom,  amounting  to  4,000,000  of  gold  crowns,  resigning 
Guienne  and  other  provinces,  he  was  permitted,  after  four 
years'  captivity,  to  revisit  his  native  soil ;  when  he  found  that 
the  miseries  of  his  people  had  been  heightened  by  civil  commo- 
tions, the  consequence  of  his  son's  inexperience ;  France  was 
plundered  by  banditti,  and  the  Jacquerie,  a  mass  of  furious 
peasantry,  in  1358,  satiated  their  spirit  of  vengeance  in  the 
blood  of  the  nobility.  A  pestilence  carried  oflF  30,000  of  hi? 
subjects  ;  and  bowed  down  by  calamity,  he  returned  to  expire 
in  England. 

Charles  V.,  the  Wise,  son  of  John,  1364.  Du  Guesclin,  his 
constable,  the  celebrated  French  commander,  lived  in  this  reign, 
and  after  the  death  of  Edward,  and  the  Black  Prince,  retook 
most  of  the  English  possessions  in  France,  and  restored  order 
for  a  short  period.  Charles  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  from  the 
effects  of  poison. 

Charles  VI.,  1380,  son  of  the  late  king.  He  labored  under 
an  unfortunate  imbecihty  of  mind,  caused  by  a  fright  he  re- 
ceived. The  war  with  England  was  renewed  :  the  gallant 
De  Courcy  fought  on  the  French  side  ;  but  the  battle  of  Agin- 
court  gave  the  English  a  decided  supeiiority.  Henry  V.,  their 
king,  gave  his  hand  to  Catharine,  the  French  king's  daughter. 
Charles  shortly  after  died,  in  1422,  abandoned  by  his  subjects, 
who  directed  their  attention  to  Henry  of  England,  his  expected 
successor.  This  was  the  epoch  of  the  Armagners  :  a  civil  war 
of  the  crown  vassals,  conducted  by  Orleans  and  Burgundy,  was 
sustained  by  assassination,  and  the  succession  settled  upon 
Henrv  V.,  of  England,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Dauphin,  after- 
wards king  Charles  VII. 

Henry  VI.  of  England,  upon  the  death  of  his  father  was  pro- 
claimed king  of  France,  when  only  nine  months  old,  1422  ;  but 
at  this  time,  amidst  the  licentiousness  of  war,  of  factions,  and  of 
manners,  a  peasant  girl  animated  the  French  in  the  cause  of  the 


CHARLES  VII.  TO  LOUIS  XII  155 

Dauphin ;  this  was  the  famous  Joan  of  Arc,  Maid  of  Orleans, 
who,  assisting  and  heading  the  dispirited  troops  of  Charles  the 
Dauphin,  by  which  the  English  were  defeated,  obliged  Henry 
to  rehnquish  his  claim  ;  and  Charles,  the  Dauphin,  ascended  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors,  by  the  title  of  Charles  VII. 

Charles  VII.,  surnamed  the  Victorious,  1436.  When  the 
rage  of  civil  war  had  abated,  he  endeavored  to  regulate  the 
disordered  finances,  and  restore  commerce.  He  deprived  the 
English  of  their  dominions  in  France  ;  but  experienced  a  series 
of  domestic  calamities,  occasioned  by  the  intrigues  and  daring 
spirit  of  his  son,  (afterwards  Louis  XI.,)  who  proceeded  to  acts 
of  open  rebellion  against  him.  Charles,  suspecting  Louis  of  in- 
tentions to  poison  him,  refused  all  nourishment  for  some  days ; 
he  fell  a  victim  to  his  distrust,  and  died  in  that  deplorable  situ- 
ation. Charles  was  the  first  king  who  instituted  a  standing 
army,  1444. 

Louis  XI.  succeeded,  1461.  The  title  of  Most  Christian  King 
was  given  him  by  the  pope,  though  little  suited  to  his  character ; 
as  he  was  dreaded  by  all  his  subjects,  and  hated  by  his  neigh- 
bors. This  prince  assisted  the  famous  Earl  of  Warwick  with  a 
fleet  and  army,  to  restore  Henry  VI.,  of  England,  to  his  throne. 
After  Henry's  death  Louis  ransomed  Margaret  of  Anjou  from 
Edward  IV.  The  French  monarchy  became  absolute  in  this 
reign.  Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  the  constant  opposep 
of  this  ambitious  king,  whose  oppression  and  barbarities  must 
shock  every  heart  not  dead  to  the  feehngs  of  humanity.  The 
motto,  a  maxim  of  this  cruel  prince,  was  Dissimuler  c'est  regner. 
The  280  years'  quarr3l  with  the  house  of  Strasburg,  which  ob- 
tained the  inheritance  of  Burgundy,  on  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  originated  in  this  reign. 

Charles  VIII.,  1483,  being  in  his  minority,  Anne,  eldest 
daughter  of  Louis  XL,  was  chosen  regent :  she  possessed  strong 
powers  of  mind  and  great  prudence.  Charles  on  his  marriage 
with  Anne  of  Bretagne,  which  accomplished  the  union  of  that 
duchy  with  Nantes,  took  the  cares  of  state  upon  him  ;  and 
complying  with  the  entreaties  of  the  ambitious  Ludovico  Sforza, 
he  attempted  the  conquest  of  Naples,  whose  king  was  op- 
pressed by  age  and  infirmities,  as  heir  of  Anjou.  The  French 
king  besieged  that  city  in  person,  defeated  the  Ncapohtans,  and 
obliged  their  monarch  (Ferdinand  II.)  to  fly :  he  soon,  however, 
by  force  of  arms,  regained  liis  throne,  and  Charles  died  not  long 
after.     He  was  the  last  king  of  the  house  of  Valois. 

Louis  XII.,  surnamed  the  Father  of  his  People,  1498.  He 
engaged  in  wars  with  the  Venetians  and  Milanese.     Ludovico 


156  FRANCIS  I.  TO  FRANCIS  II. 

Sforza  having  usurped  the  government  of  Milan,  Louis  de- 
feated and  sentenced  him  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Ihia 
king  was  beloved  by  his  subjects,  as  he  showed  his  clemency 
on  many  remarkable  occasions,  and  repealed  some  severe  taxes. 
He  married  the  princess  Mary  of  England,  sister  to  Henry 

Francis  I.,  Count  of  Angouleme,  who  had  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  late  king,  ascended  the  throne,  1515.  This  is  tho 
era  of  French  literature  :  Francis  loved  and  encouraged  the 
arts :  he  was  brave  to  excess,  in  his  own  person,  but  his  valor 
and  ambition  endangered  the  safety  of  his  kingdom.  He  con- 
tended unsuccessfully  for  the  German  empire.  The  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  a  powerful  lord,  who  resented  the  indignities  he  had 
received  from  the  king  and  his  mother,  joined  Charles  V.,  of 
Germany,  and  Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  in  a  confederacy  to 
place  Charles  V.  upon  the  French  throne.  Francis,  by  his 
valor  and  address,  delivered  his  kingdom  from  the  threatened 
danger ;  but,  being  unable  to  perform  the  conditions  insisted 
upon  by  Charles,  after  the  fatal  battle  of  Pavia,  in  which  he 
said  "  he  had  lost  every  thing  but  his  honor,"  he  was  engaged 
in  a  war  with  the  emperor  till  his  death. 

Henry  II.,  son  of  Francis,  1547.  The  reign  of  this  prince 
was  chiefly  distinguished  by  his  wars  with  Pope  Julius  II.  and 
the  emperor.  Henry  married  Catherine  de  Medicis,  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  The  battle  of  Saint  Quentin,  fought 
with  the  Spaniards,  was  lost  by  the  French ;  but  Henry's  cele- 
brated general,  the  Duke  of  Guise,  preserved  the  lustre  of  the 
French  arms  against  the  united  powers  of  England,  Spain,  and 
Flanders.  He  took  Calais  from  the  English.  Henry  was  un- 
fortunately killed  at  a  tournament,  while  celebrating  the  nup- 
tials of  the  princess  Elizabeth  with  Philip,  king  of  Spain. 

Francis  II.,  son  of  Henry,  1559.  The  government  of  the 
kingdom,  during  this  reign,  was  intrusted  to  Catherine  de 
Medicis.  The  king  married  Mary,  queen  of  Scots  ;  and  wholly 
guided  by  his  mother,  and  his  uncles  the  Guises,  persecuted  the 
Protestants,  now  known  by  the  name  of  Huguenots.  Worn  out 
by  the  oppressions  of  the  Catholic  party,  they  at  length  took  up 
arms  ;  and  this  was  the  era  of  those  dreadful  civil,  falsely  termed 
religious  wars,  which  desolated  France,  and  stain  with  indehble 
infamy  the  rulers  of  the  French  nation.  Francis  died,  after  a 
short  reign  of  two  years.  So  little  had  the  refinement  of  man- 
ners and  the  cultivation  wk'ch  flourished  under  Francis  I.,  soft- 
ened the  ferocity  of  fanaticism,  that  Calvinists  were  burned  at 
the  stake.     The  foundation  of  the  national  debt,  the  weight  of 


CHARLES  IX.  TO  LOUIS  XIII.  157 

which  broke  down  the  throne  250  years  after,  was  laid  at  this 
period. 

Charles  IX.,  second  son  of  Henry  II.,  succeeded  in  his  mi- 
nority, 1560.  Catherine  de  Medicis  governed  him  ;  and,  joining 
to  great  abilities  boundless  ambition  and  keen  revenge,  she 
prevailed  upon  the  king  to  arm  against  the  Protestants,  whose 
growing  numbers  she  dreaded.  Civil  wars  followed :  after 
which  (on  the  memorable  24th  August,  1572)  began  that  horrid 
massacre,  which  extended  through  Paris,  Lyons,  Orleans,  Rouen, 
Angers,  and  Toulouse.  Thus,  merely  for  difference  in  opinion, 
30,000  Frenchmen  were  inhumanly  put  to  death  by  their  vin- 
dictive enemies.  Charles,  after  this,  concluded  a  peace  with 
the  Huguenots  ;  and,  a  prey  to  severe  remorse,  and  the  effects 
of  a  dreadful  disorder,  he  expired,  being  only  twenty -three  years 
of  age. 

Henry  III.,  brother  of  Charles,  1574.  He  had  been  elected 
king  of  Poland ;  but  on  the  death  of  Charles,  the  Poles  chose 
another  king.  Henry,  fond  of  pleasure,  fickle,  and  irresolute, 
was  governea  by  Catherine  de  Medicis.  The  civil  wars  were 
renewed  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  one  of  which 
was  called  the  Holy  League,  and  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Guise. 
Henry,  fearing  this  nobleman  had  designs  upon  the  crown, 
basely  caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  with  his  brother,  the  car- 
dinal of  Guise  ;  and  the  king,  shortly  after,  experienced  the 
same  fate,  from  the  hands  of  Clement,  the  monk.  The  de- 
testable Catherine  de  Medicis  died  just  before  her  son,  aged 
seventy. 

Henry  the  Great,  first  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  1589.  He 
was  bred  a  Protestant,  and  gallantly  defended  that  cause  when 
king  of  Navarre  ;  but  wishing  to  heal  disturbances,  and  con- 
ciliate the  affections  of  his  people,  in  1593  he  went  openly  to 
mass,  though  he  was  always  supposed  to  be  attached  to  his  old 
opinions.  Soon  after  this  he  pubhshed  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
which  granted  to  the  Protestants  the  exercise  of  their  religion, 
the  enjoyment  of  their  estates,  and  made  them  eligible  to  public 
offices.  After  a  glorious  reign,  Henry  was  assassinated  by 
Ravaillac,  a  monk  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  in  the  streets  of 
Paris. 

Louis  XIII.  succeeded  his  father,  1610,  when  only  nine  years 
of  age.  Mary  of  Medicis,  his  mother,  was  appointed  regent ; 
Cardinal  de  Retz,  his  minister :  they  renewed  the  civil  wars, 
which  had  continued  during  the  reigns  of  five  princes,  and  de- 
stroyed nine  cities,  400  villages,  and  2,000  monasteries,  by  their 
horrid  ravages.     Upon  the  death  of  De  Retz,  Richelieu  became 

14 


158  LOUIS  XIV.  TO  LOUIS  XVI. 

minister ;  he  humbled  Spain,  and  the  spirit  of  the  French  no* 
biUty,  defeated  the  Huguenots,  and  checked  the  ambitious  views 
of  Austria ;  to  him  Louis  owed  his  authority,  for  on  his  own 
account  the  king  wm.   ittle  feared  or  loved  by  his  people. 

Louis  XIV.  succeeded  his  father  when  only  five  years  old, 
1643.  His  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  with  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
conducted  pubKc  affairs.  This  reign  was  the  longest,  and  in  its 
first  part  the  most  splendid  of  any  iii  the  French  annals. 
Turenne,  and  the  Prince  of  Conde,  multiplied  the  conquests  of 
Louis,  and  obtained  the  most  brilliant  victories.  Louis  revoked 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  granted  protection  to  James  IL,  king 
of  England.  After  the  death  of  Mazarin,  Colbert  became  prime 
minister,  whose  exertions  in  his  country's  service  are  never  to 
be  forgotten.  Louis  was  the  munificent  patron  of  the  arts,  and 
twice  defeated  William  IIL,  but  Marlborough  tore  the  laurels 
from  his  brow,  and  humbled  his  pride:  He  lived  to  i>ee  the 
Enghsh  government  in  the  hands  of  Charles  L,  Cromwell, 
Charles  II.,  James  H.,  William  and  Mary,  Anne,  and  George  I. 

Louis  XV.  succeeded  his  great-grandfather,  1715.  The  Duke 
of  Orleans  was  appointed  regent,  who  endeavored  to  relieve  the 
miseries  of  war,  and  restore  commerce  and  agriculture.  When 
the  king  became  of  age,  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  and  Cardinal 
Fleury  w^ere  successively  ministers.  When  Fleury  died,  Louis 
reigned  alone,  and,  at  the  head  of  his  army,  obtained  some 
signal  victories  in  Flanders :  a  peace  succeeded,  and  for  seven 
years  the  arts  and  literature  flourished  in  France.  This  king 
assisted  the  Pretender  in  his  schemes  upon  England.  The 
conclusion  of  his  reign  was  unfortunate  ;  his  people,  exhausted 
by  war,  loudly  murmured,  but  Louis  was  deaf  to  their  com- 
plaints, and  pursued  his  arbitrary  measures  till  his  death. 

Louis  XVL,  1774,  grandson  of  the  last  king.  Upon  him 
fell  the  weight  of  those  miseries  which  his  predecessors  had 
caused.  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign  he  endeavored  to 
alleviate  the  distresses  of  his  subjects ;  but,  guided  by  the 
suggestions  of  his  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  his  anxiety  to  pre- 
serve his  absolute  authority  was  the  rock  upon  which  he  was 
shipwrecked.  His  people  rebelled  ;  an  ardent  and  active  spirit 
pervaded  all  ranks ;  Louis  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  National  Assembly,  who,  not  content 
with  abohshing  royalty,  beheaded  their  king,  January  2 1st,  1793 : 
his  queen  shared  the  same  fate,  October  16th,  1703.  These 
executions,  contrary  to  existing  laws  framed  by  the  Convention 
themselves,  cast  an  eternal  stigma  upon  tlie  French  nation,  and 
caused  the  friends  of  1 3al  liberty  to  mourn  the  barbarities  and 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE  TO  CHARLES  X.        15d 

excesses  which  have  been  committed  by  the  abusers  of  that 
sacred  name. 

An  era  succeeded,  marked  by  a  political  fanaticism,  of  which 
history  affords  no  other  example,  and  by  crimes,  the  recital  of 
which  fills  the  mind  with  horror. 

The  powers  of  Europe  raised  a  crusade  against  revolutionary 
France ;  but  though  anarchy  ruled  witliin,  France  repelled 
foreign  armies,  Avhile  the  different  parties  in  the  National  Con- 
vention proscribed,  banished,  and  massacred  each  other.  The 
government  of  the  Directory  succeeded,  but  was  overthrown  by 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  was  elected  consul  for  life  in  1802. 
This  extraordinary  person  so  far  won  the  affections  of  the  na- 
tion, by  the  number  and  splendor  of  his  Victories  in  Italy,  Spain, 
Holland,  Belgium,  that  he  converted  the  republic  into  an 
hereditary  monarchy  in  1804.  When  consul  he  reduced  em- 
pires into  republics  ;  when  emperor  he  elevated  republics  into 
empires  :  in  1812,  he  marched  with  an  army  of  400,000  men 
into  Russia,  and  reached  Moscow,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Czars,  only  to  witness  its  conflagration.  A  severe  winter  de- 
stroyed his  army,  but  a  few  months  saw  him  again  at  the  head 
of  300,000  men,  when  he  resisted  the  combined  efforts  of  Eu- 
rope. In  1814  Paris  was  occupied  by  the  European  powers, 
Louis  XVIII.  placed  on  the  throne,  and  Napoleon  withdrew, 
an  exile,  to  the  Island  of  Elba.  In  1815,  he  again  returned  to 
Paris,  (from  which  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  court  fled  with  great 
precipitation,)  at  the  head  of  the  very  army  that  had  been  sent 
to  take  him  prisoner,  and  levying  a  new  army,  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Prussians,  but  lost  the  memorable  battle  of  Waterloo 
on  the  following  day,  upon  which  he  again  abdicated  the  throne, 
threw  himself  upon  the  generosity  of  the  English  nation,  and 
was  sent  a  prisoner  to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  died 
on  the  5th  May,  1821.  Having  no  children  by  his  empress 
Josephine,  he  unfeelingly  divorced  her,  and  married  Maria 
Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor  of  Austria.  By  this  princess 
he  had  a  son  who  took  the  title  of  Duke  of  Reichstadt ;  he  died 
young.  Louis  XVII.  never  reigned  :  he  died  at  the  age  of  ten 
years  from  cruel  treatment.     Louis  XVIII.  reigned  ten  years. 

Charles  X.,  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  ascended  the  throne  in 
1824,  but  attempting  to  obtain  absolute  power,  and  having 
annihilated  the  charter,  the  people  rose  en  masse  ;  and  after  a 
sanguinary  conflict  in  the  streets  of  Paris  for  three  days,  in  the 
month  of  July,  1830,  lie  Avas  obliged  to  abdicate  the  throne, 
from  which  he  and  his  family  are  excluded  by  a  decree  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  August,  1830.     Prince  Polignac,  his 


T60  LOUIS  PHILIPPE-  -GENERAL  SUMMARY 

minister,  was  brought  to  trial  and  condemned  to  solitary  im« 
prisonment  for  life,  first  at  St.  Michael's,  afterwards  in  Ham 
Castle;  but  he  was  released  on  an  appeal  from  the  British 
people. 

Louis  Philippe,  of  the  branch  of  Orleans,  descended  from  a 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  elected  king  of  the  French,  9th  of 
Auorust,  1830.  He  is  the  eldest  son  of  Egalite,  who  so  heart- 
lessly  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI. ;  was  educated  by 
Madame  de  Genlis ,  wandered,  as  an  outlaw,  over  the  north  of 
Europe,  and  the  states  of  America  ;  and  the  vicissitudes  of  uh 
life  have  been  more  extraordinary  than  those  of  any  monarch 
in  modern  history.  He  has  led  armies  to  victory ;  taught  the 
rudiments  of  literature  for  his  support ;  and  being  restored  to 
his  rank,  and  elevated  still  further  to  wear  the  crown  of  that 
kingdom  in  which  he  was  once  a  criminal,  he  has  survived  the 
attempts  of  seven  different  assassins  on  as  many  different  oc- 
casions. At  this  time,  March  18th,  1848,  the  news  has  just 
been  received  of  another  revolution  in  France,  of  which  the 
chief  instigators  were  M.  Odillon  Barrot,  and  Thiers.  Louis 
Philippe  has  been  dethroned  and  left  Paris.  The  people  have 
declared  for  a  Republic,  but  the  result  has  not  yet  reached  us. 

The  French  lines  of  kings  were,  the  Franks,  the  Merovingians, 
the  Carlo vingians,  the  line  of  Capet,  of  Valois,  and  of  Bourbon. 
And  the  four  French  kings  most  famed  in  history  were,  Charle- 
magne, contemporary  with  Egbert,  of  England  ;  Philip  II.,  with 
jRichard  I.  ;  Francis  I.,  with  Henry  VIII. ;  and  Henry  IV.,  or 
the  Great,  with  queen  Elizabeth.  The  best  French  historians 
are,  Philip  de  Comines,  Davila,  De  Thou,  and  Mezerai.  The 
grand  epochs  in  the  history  of  France  are,  the  introduction  of 
Christianity ;  France  almost  entirely  conquered  by  Henry  V., 
of  England  ;  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants,  on  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew's day  ;  revolution  in  1792,  when  Louis  XVI.  was  beheaded  ; 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  1814  ;  revolution  in  1830,  A\hen  Charles 
X.  was  deposed  ;  election  of  Louis  Phihppe  to  the  throne  ;  and 
revolution  of  1848 


CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS  161 


QUESTIONS 

RELATING   TO    THE 

HIST^ORY  OF  AMERICA, 

FROM    ITS    DISCOVERY   TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME. 

When  was  Airerica  discovered?  In  the  year  1492.  By 
whom  ?  Christopher  Columbus,  or  Columbo,  a  native  of  Genoa, 
born  in  1441.  He  was  the  son  of  a  woolcomber,  and  studied 
at  the  university-  at  Pavia,  until  he  was  fourteen  years  of  age, 
when  he  left  it  for  a  seafaring  life.  Between  thirty  and  forty 
years  were  spent  by  him  in  voyages  to  various  parts  of  the  then 
known  world.  At  length  he  settled  at  Lisbon,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Palestrollo,  an  Italian  navigator.  He  was  well  versed 
in  the  sciences  of  geography,  astronomy,  and  geometry ;  and  his 
observations  during  his  voyages,  supported  by  the  evidence  of 
pieces  of  wood  carved  with  unknown  figures,  trunks  of  trees, 
and  canes,  drifted  across  the  Atlantic,  induced  him  to  believe 
that  by  stretching  across  the  ocean  in  a  westerly  direction,  the 
shores  of  eastern  Asia  might  be  reached  ;  and  in  the  retirement 
subsequent  to  his  marriage  he  resolved  to  obtain  from  some 
sovereign  the  means  of  making  the  attempt.  To  whom  did  he 
apply  ?  First  to  his  own  countrymen,  at  Genoa ;  then  to  the 
king  of  Portugal,  whose  son.  Prince  Henry,  gave  him  some  en- 
couragement ;  but  this  young  prince  dying  early,  Columbus, 
being  no  longer  supported,  carried  his  plans,  &c.,  to  England, 
and  applied  to  Henry  VII. ;  but  this  monarch,  whose  well- 
known  parsimony  prevented  his  expending  money  on  a  doubtful 
cause,  refused  his  aid,  and  Columbus,  nothing  daunted,  repaired 
to  Spain,  where  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  then  reigned.  What 
was  his  success  with  them  ?  Isabella  encouraged,  but  Ferdinand 
■was  opposed  to  him,  and  after  many  vexatious  delays  he  was  at 
length  supplied  with  three  small  vessels,  and  sailed  from  the 
port  of  Palos,  in  Spain,  on  the  2d  of  August,  1492.  To  what 
islands  did  he  first  direct  his  course  ?  To  the  Canary  Islands ; 
where,  having  refitted,  he  continued  his  voyage  on  the  6th  of 
Septeml)er,  passing  into  seas  which  had  never  before  been  ex- 
plored. What  had  he  then  to  contend  with  ?  The  superstitious 
fears  of  his  crew ;  for  when,  after  having  sailed  200  leagues 

14* 


162  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA. 

from  the  Canaries,  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needlt  from  its 
direction  to  the  polar  star  was  observed  for  the  first  tin.ie,  they 
became  alarmed,  and  refused  to  continue  the  voyage.  How  did 
he  overcome  these  scruples  ?  By  his  firmness  and  presence  of 
mind.  He  explained  this  phenomenon,  which  he  did  not  then 
understand  himself,  in  such  a  way  as  to  quiet  the  fears  of  his 
crew ;  and  after  30  days,  continuing  the  voyage  in  a  state  of  the 
utmost  anxiety  of  mind  and  fatigue  of  body,  for  he  never  left 
the  deck,  he  promised  if  land  were  not  discovered  in  three  days 
he  would  instantly  return.  On  the  second  night,  the  night  of 
the  11th  of  October,  1492,  a  light  was  discovered  ahead  of  the 
vessel,  and  the  next  morning  Columbus,  who  had  been  all  night 
matching  the  light,  gave  the  joyful  cry  of  "  Land ! !"  and  all 
loined  in  his  hyffln  of  thanksgiving  to  Almighty  God.  The 
whole  crew  united  in  ardent  expressions  of  admiration  for  their 
commander,  with  acknowledgments  of  their  own  rashness  and 
disobedience,  and  vows  of  future  good  conduct.  Was  this  land 
the  continent  of  America  ?  No.  It  was  a  small  island  ;  one  of 
the  Bahama  group,  which  form  part  of  the  British  West  India 
Islands,  and  is  now  called  Cat  Island,  )at.  24°  37^  long.  75°  50^ 
Columbus  gave  it  the  name  of  St.  Salvador,  which  signifies  being 
saved.  What  islands  did  he  next  discover  ?  Cuba,  and  Hayti, 
or  St.  Domingo,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Hispaniola,  and 
landing  there,  left  some  of  his  men  to  form  a  colony.  Did 
Columbus,  then,  know  that  these  islands  belonged  to  a  new 
world  ?  No  ;  he  imagined  them  connected  with  India,  accord- 
ing to  his  theory,  that  India  could  be  reached  by  a  western 
passage  ;  and  he  therefore  gave  them  the  name  of  West  India, 
and  the  natives  he  called  Indians.  What  did  he  obtain  before 
he  returned  to  Spain  ?  A  quantity  of  gold  from  the  mines  of 
Hispaniola,  and  several  of  the  natives,  whom  he  persuaded  to 
accompany  him.  What  occurred  on  his  voyage  to  Spain  ?  A 
violent  tempest  arose  which  continued  fifteen  days,  and  Colum- 
bus, fearing  that  by  the  destruction  of  his  vessels  the  benefit  of 
his  discoveries  would  be  lost  to  the  world,  had  the  presence  of 
mind  to  write  a  short  account  of  his  voyage,  which  he  wrapped 
in  an  oiled  cloth,  and  enclosed  in  a  cake  of  wax,  and  putting 
this  in  an  empty  cask,  threw  it  into  the  sea,  with  the  hope  that 
it  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  other  navigator,  or  be 
washed  ashore  and  found.  What  then  occurred  ?  The  storm 
abated,  and  a  few  days  after,  Columbus  entered  the  port  of 
Palos,  after  an  absence  of  seven  months,  amidst  the  acclamations 
and  wonder  of  the  multitude  at  the  sight  of  the  strange  beings 
who  accompanied  him,  and  the  gold  with  which  they  were 


DEATH  OF  COLUxMBUS.  163 

laden.  What  did  he  tlien  do  ?  He  hastened  to  the  court,  where 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  received  him  with  respect  and  admiration, 
and  loaded  him  with  favors  and  honors.  When  did  Columbus 
discover  the  continent  of  South  America  ?  In  1498  ;  on  his  third 
voyage.  What  did  his  success  give  rise  to  ?  Envy  and  in- 
trigues against  him  in  the  court  of  Spain.  What  course  was 
pursued  towards  him  ?  He  was  at  Hispaniola,  the  government 
of  which  island  had  been  conferred  on  him  ;  when,  in  consequence 
of  false  accusations,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  sent  home  in  chains.  What  did  the  captain  of  the 
vessel  in  which  he  was  offer  to  do  ?  To  release  him  from  his 
chains.  What  was  his  reply  ?  "I  wear  these  fetters  in  obe- 
dience to  the  orders  c  f  their  majesties  the  rulers  of  Spain  ;  they 
shall  find  me  as  obedient  to  this  as  to  their  other  injunctions  ; 
by  their  command  I  have  been  confined,  and  their  command 
alone  shall  set  me  at  liberty."  When  released  from  his  fetters, 
what  did  he  do  with  them  ?  He  hung  them  in  his  chamber, 
and  gave  orders  that  they  should  be  buried  with  him.  Did 
Ferdinand  express  any  regret  at  the  treatment  which  Columbus 
received  ?  No ;  after  detaining  him  for  some  time  about  the 
court  in  fatiguing  and  vexatious  attendance,  he  appointed  another 
governor  to  Hispaniola,  and  Columbus  retired  in  disgust.  Did 
Columbus  then  give  up  all  future  discoveries  ?  No  ;  still  intent 
on  finding  a  passage  to  India  by  the  western  course,  he  made  a 
fourth  voyage,  examined  the  coast  of  Darien,  and  was  ship- 
wrecked on  the  island  of  Jamaica,  where  the  cave  in  which  he 
took  refuge  is  still  shown  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island. 
How  did  he  obtain  great  influence  and  command  over  the  natives 
of  this  island,  who  were  a  more  warlike  race  than  those  formerly 
discovered  ?  By  predicting  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which  led 
them  to  look  upon  him  as  a  deity.  Did  this  belief  continue  ? 
No  ;  they  soon  overcame  this  feeling  and  attacked  his  troops  ; 
his  men  mutinied,  and  at  length  worn  out  by  fatigue,  scarcity 
of  provision,  and  sickness,  he  returned  to  Spain.  Did  he  live 
long  after  this  ?  He  died  soon  after  his  return  to  Spain,  at 
Valladolid,  the  20th  of  May,  1506,  aged  65  years.  Who 
ordered  a  magnificent  funeral  for  him  ?  Philip  I.,  king  of 
Spain,  who  had  recently  ascended  the  throne.  He  also  desired 
the  following  inscription  to  be  engraved  on  his  tomb,  "  To  Castile 
and  Leon,  Columbus  has  given  a  new  world."  What  was  the 
character  of  Columbus?  He  was  patient  and  persevering,  fer- 
tile in  expedients,  grave  and  dignified  in  his  manners,  master  of 
himself,  and  skilful  in  the  government  of  other  men.  Why  was 
not  the  name  of  Columbus  given  to  this  continent  ?     He  "waa 


164  FERDINAND  CORTEZ. 

deprived  of  this  honor  by  Americus  Vespucius,  an  Italiaix 
native  of  Florence,  who  accompanied  Ojida  on  a  voyage  in 
1499,  and  discovered  a  part  of  the  coast  of  South  America  the 
year  after  it  had  been  discovered  by  Columbus.  How  did  he 
effect  this  purpose  ?  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  voyage,  claim- 
ing the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  discover  the  main  land ;  and 
from  him  the  continent  was  named  "  America." 

Who  discovered  the  continent  of  North  America  ?  John 
Cabot,  a  Venetian  by  birth,  but  a  resident  of  Bristol  in  England. 
He  received  a  commission  from  Henry  VII.,  and  sailed  in  May, 
1497,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  accompanied  by  his  son  Sebas- 
tian, and  one,  or  both  of  them,  discovered  the  contment  of  North 
America,  the  year  before  the  main  land  of  So\jth  America  had 
been  discovered  by  Columbus,  and  fwo  years  before  it  had  been 
seen  by  Americus.  What  was  the  land  first  seen  called,  and 
what  is  it  supposed  to  have  been  ?  It  was  called  Prima  Vista, 
(first  view,)  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  part  of  Newfound- 
land. What  course  did  the  Cabots  then  take  ?  They  pro- 
ceeded further  north,  still  in  pursuit  of  the  passage  to  India, 
but  finding  no  appearance  of  one,  they  put  about  and  sailed  as 
far  as  Florida.  How  did  they  take  possession  of  the  country  ? 
By  erecting  crosses  along  the  coast,  and  taking  formal  posses- 
sion of  it  in  behalf  of  the  crown  of  England.  What  must  be 
particularly  remarked  of  this  event  ?  That  it  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  English  claim  to  North  America  ;  though  no  settle- 
ments were  formed  for  many  years  after.  Who  at  length  dis- 
covered the  western  passage  to  the  East  Indies  ?  Vasco  de 
Gama,  a  Portuguese,  first  discovered  the  passage  round  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  pursuing  a  southwesterly  course  from 
Lisbon.  Did  many  years  pass  after  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus,  before  any  considerable  settlement  was  made  by 
the  Spaniards  on  the  continent?  Yes;  it  was  not  until  1519, 
that  Ferdinand  Cortez,  a  young  Spanish  adventurer,  sai'ed 
from  Cuba  for  the  invasion  of  Mexico,  and  landed  at  a  seaport 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Vera  Cruz,  i.  e.  the  true  cross. 
Had  Cortez  a  large  armament  ?  He  had  only  a  fleet  of  1 1  small 
vessels,  having  on  board  617  men,  and  as  fire-arms  were  not  in 
general  use,  only  13  of  the  men  had  muskets.  He  had  also  10 
small  pieces  of  artillery  and  16  horses ;  the  first  of  these  ani- 
mals ever  seen  in  that  country,  whose  prairies  now  abound  in 
wild  horses.  How  were  the  rest  of  the  men  armed  ?  With 
crossbows,  swords,  and  spears,  but  they  were  all  clothed  in 
armor.  /Did  Cortez  advance  at  once  to  Mexico  ?  He  advanced 
RS  rapidly  as  possible,  but  was  opposed,  at  different  places  on 


MONTEZUMA  AND  GUATIMOZIN.  165 

the  route,  by  the  natives,  who  were  much  averse  to  his  entering 
their  country ;  but,  naked  and  ill-armed,  they  had  only  numbers 
to  oppose  to  the  well-trained  Spaniards  with  their  cannon  and 
muskets,  which  they  regarded  with  superstitious  fear.  What 
person  was  most  opposed  to  the  advance  of  Cortez  ?  The  em* 
peror  or  chief  of  the  whole  country,  to  whom  all  the  other  cities 
and  provinces  were  tributary.  Who  was  this  ?  Montezuma  ; 
at  once  the  wisest,  the  most  powerful,  and  wealthy  of  all  the 
Indian  monarchs,  who  resided  at  the  far-famed  capital  of  Mexico. 
Why  was  Montezuma  so  violently  opposed  to  the  Spaniards 
before  he  knew  their  avarice  and  treachery  ?  Chiefly  from  a 
tradition  existing  among  the  Mexicans,  that  a  strange  people 
from  the  east  should  conquer  them.  What  was  Montezuma's 
conduct  when  he  found  Cortez,  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  deter- 
mined on  advancing  to  Mexico  ?  He  appeared  to  resign  himself 
to  his  fate  and  the  force  of  circumstances ;  and  from  the  time 
of  Cortez's  entry  into  Mexico,  until  the  hour  of  his  death,  con- 
tinued to  treat  Cortez  with  the  utmost  generosity,  hospitality, 
and  apparent  confidence,  and  loaded  him  with  gifts  and  honors. 
What  was  the  return  of  Cortez  for  all  this  kindness  ?  Deceit 
and  treachery.^  He  ordered  Montezuma  to  be  seized  and  placed 
in  irons,  accusing  him  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  SjMniards  ; 
deprived  him  of  all  power,  and  robbed  him  of  a  vast  amount  of 
treasure.  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  conduct  ?  The 
Mexicans  flew  to  arms,  and  after  a  violent  contest  the  Spaniards 
were  defeated :  Montezuma  was  killed  in  the  conflict,  but  his 
nephew,  Guatimozin,  who  had  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  Mexicans,  continued  to  encourage  them  by  his  bravery,  and 
they  pursued  the  Spaniards  without  mercy,  kilUng  many,  and 
driving  others  into  the  canals  by  which  the  city  was  intersected, 
where  numbers  perished,  laden  with  the  gold  and  precious 
stones  of  which  they  had  robbed  the  Mexicans.  How  is  the 
recollection  of  this  event  preserved  ?  It  is  called  by  the  Span- 
ish Mexicans  to  this  day  "  La  noche  triste,  or  dolorosa — the  night 
of  misery ;"  on  the  anniversary  of  which  they  go  in  procession  to 
the  churches,  and  off"er  up  prayers  for  the  souls  of  those  .who 
perished  at  that  time.  What  course  did  Cortez  then  pursue  ? 
Undismayed  by  this  reverse,  Cortez,  with  the  aid  of  a  nation  of 
Indians  who  had  joined  him  on  his  first  entrance  into  Mexico, 
called  *  Tlascalans,"  and  with  a  reinforcement  of  Spaniards, 
who  joined  him  from  Vera  Cruz,  besieged  and  took  the  city, 
seized  Guatimozin  and  his  family,  and  became  master  of  the 
country  in  1521.  j-What  was  the  fate  of  Guatimozin?  He 
was  put  to  death,  after  having  been  most  cruelly  tortured  by 


166  PERU PIZARR6. 

the  Spaniards  ;  several  of  liis  most  distinguished  captains  were 
tortured  with  bim,  and  on  hearing  one  of  them  cry  out  witt 
anguish,  while  he  had  not  uttered  a  groan,  he  turned  to  him 
and  said :  "  Do  you  think  I  am  on  a  bed  of  roses  ?"  When 
did  the  Spaniards  form  a  settlement  at  Panama?  In  1518. 
Where  is  Panama  situated  ?  On  the  west  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Darien.  Who  sailed  from  this  place  to  explore  the  regions  of 
South  America  ?  A  Spanish  adventurer,  named  "  Pizarro,"  in 
the  year  1525.  W^hat  country  did  he  discover?  The  rich 
and  flourishing  kingdom  of  Peru.  How  did  he  obtain  posses- 
sion of  it  ?  lie  procured  from  Charles  Y.,  then  king  of  Spain 
and  emperor  of  Germany,  a  commission  as  governor  of  the 
country,  with  a  military  force  to  subdue  it;  anci  for  this  purpose 
he  sailed  from  Panama,  in  1531,  with  three  small  vessels  and 
180  men.  How  did  he  proceed  ?  He  landed  with  his  forces, 
marched  with  little  opposition  to  the  residence  of  the  Inca,  or 
king,  Atahualpa,  and  having  invited  him  to  a  friendly  interview, 
tried  to  persuade  him  to  embrace  the  Christian  faith.  Did 
Atahualpa  consent  to  this  ?  He  refused,  and  Pizarro  imme- 
diately ordered  his  men  to  seize  the  defenceless  monarch,  whom 
they  detained  a  prisoner,  and  slew  upwards  of  4,000  of  hb 
attendants.  \  What  did  Atahualpa  offer  to  procure  his  release  ? 
To  fill  the  room  in  which  he  was  confined,  which  was  22  feet  in 
length  and  16  in  breadth,  with  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  as  high 
as  he  could  reach.  What  was  the  value  of  this  treasure  ?  It 
was  valued  at  upwards  of  £1,500,000,  and  was  collected  from 
different  parts  of  the  empire  by  the  Peruvians  for  their  monarch's 
ransom.  Did  Pizarro  release  him  when  he  performed  this 
promise  ?  The  perfidious  Spaniard  still  held  the  Inca  prisoner, 
and  being  joined  by  his  friend  Diego  Almagro,  an  adventurer 
like  himself,  with  a  reinforcement  of  troops,  they  brought  Ata- 
hualpa to  trial,  on  a  charge  of  being  an  usurper  and  idolater, 
condemned  and  executed  him.  What  was  the  subseqmmt  fate 
of  these  two  men  ?  They  soon  after  quarrelled  among  them- 
selves, Almagro  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  troops  of  Pizarro, 
condemned  and  executed  by  his  order ;  and  soon  after  Pizarrc 
was  assassinated.  Did  the  Peruvians  take  advantage  of  these 
contentions  ?  Yes ;  they  rose  against  the  Spaniards,  headed  by 
their  new  Inca,  Huanca  Capac,  but  they  were  at  length  sub- 
dued, and  Peru  became  a  province  of  Spain.  What  was  the 
state  of  the  arts  among  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion  by  the  Spaniards  ?  Both  nations  under- 
stood the  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  working  the 
precious  metals ;  but  knew  little  of  mining,  d'^pending  chiefly  for 


MEXICAN  AND  PERUVIAN  WORSHIP.  167 

them,  on  that  which  was  washed  down  by  the  streams  of  water 
from  the  mountains  containing  the  mines.*  Were  they  ac- 
quainted with  agriculture  ?  In  some  degree,  but  the  Indians 
raised  only  sufficient  for  their  own  use,  not  knowing  any  thing  of 
foreign  countries.  They  also  understood  weaving  and  em- 
broidery, and  excelled  in  an  art  now  entirely  lost,  of  forming  a 
fabric  composed  of  the  feathers  of  the  beautiful  birds  of  the 
country.  ^JWhich  had  the  superiority  in  architecture?  The 
Peruvians:  they  had  some  magnificent  temples  and  palaces. 
What  deity  did  the  Mexicans  worship  ?  They  had  many  gods, 
of  which  the  chief  were  named  Xacacataptl  and  Mejitl,  who 
were  worshipped  with  human  sacrifices.  What  was  the  Peru- 
vian religion  ?  They  adored  the  sun,  as  the  supreme  Deity, 
though  they  had  inferior  gods ;  and  their  worship  was  unat- 
tended by  the  sanguinary  traits  of  the  Mexican  faith.  They 
regarded  their  Incas  as  divine.  What  were  the  discoveries  of 
1524  ?  Francis  I.,  king  of  France,  wishing  to  have  a  share  of 
the  new  world,  sent  Verrazano  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  ;  he 
explored  a  great  part  of  the  coast  of  North  America,  When 
was  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  discovered,  and  by  whom  ?  In 
1534,  by  James  Cartier,  who  also  sailed  under  orders  from 
Francis  I.  What  was  his  further  course  ?  He  entered  the 
gulf,  and  sailed  up  the  river,  taking  possession  of  the  country  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  France,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
New  France,  but  it  was  afterwards  changed  to  Canada.  What 
commission  did  Elizabeth,  queen  of  England,  give  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  1584  ?  She  gave  him  a  commission,  "to  discover, 
occupy  and  govern,  remote,  heathen,  and  barbarous  countries, 
not  previously  possessed  by  any  Christian  prince  or  people." 
To  what  part  of  the  new  world  did  Sir  Walter  direct  his  course? 
To  the  shores  of  North  America ;  he  arrived  off  the  coast  of 
what  is  now  called  North  Carolina,  entered  Pamlico  Sound,  and 
proceeded  to  Roanoke  Island,  near  the  mouth  of  Albemarle 

*  The  Peruvians  excelled  in  the  workmanship  of  gold  and  silver  articles, 
the  beauty  of  which  far  exceeded  any  thing  which  the  Spaniards  had  ever 
beheld.  Among  the  articles  given  for  the  ransom  of  Atahualpa  to  Pizarro, 
"  were,"  says  Mr.  Prescott  in  his  admirable  work,  the  Conquest  of  Peru, 
"  goblets,  ewers,  salvers,  vases  of  every  shape  and  size,  ornaments  and 
utensils  for  the  temples  and  the  royal  palaces,  tiles  and  plates  for  the  decora- 
tion of  the  public  edifices,  curious  imitations  of  different  plants,  and  animals. 
Among  the  plants,  the  most  beautiful  was  the  Indian  corn,  in  which  the 
golden  ear  was  sheathed  in  its  broad  leaves  of  silver,  from  which  hung  a 
rich  tassel  of  threads  of  the  same  precious  metal.  A  fountain  was  also 
much  admired,  which  sent  up  a  sparkling  jet  of  gold,  while  birds  and  ani- 
mals of  the  same  material,  played  in  the  waters  at  its  base." 


168  SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 

Sound,  taking  possession  of  the  country  in  tlie  name  of  the  Queen 
of  England,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Virginia,  in  compliment  to 
the  Virffin  Queen.  Did  he  attempt  to  form  settlements  there  ? 
On  Raleigh's  return  to  England  the  glowing  descriptions  he 
gave  of  the  country  induced  many  adventurers  to  oflfer  their 
services,  and  in  1585,  he  fitted  out  a  squadron  of  seven 
ships,  which  he  placed  under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard 
Grenville,  who  followed  the  same  course  which  Sir  Walter  had 
pursued  the  last  year,  and  left  a  colony  at  Roanoke  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Jane.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  colo- 
ny? The  following  year,  the  colonists  were  reduced  to  the 
utmost  distress  for  want  of  provisions,  and  on  Sir  Francis 
Drake's  stopping  there,  on  his  return  from  a  successful  ex- 
pedition against  the  Spaniards,  in  the  West  Indies,  they  all 
embarked  with  him  for  England.  What  was  the  fate  of  the 
next  colony  ?  Raleigh  had  sent  out  a  vessel  for  the  relief  of 
the  distressed  settlers  at  Roanoke,  which  arrived  shortly  after 
they  left ;  and  Sir  Richard  Grenville  arriving  soon  after,  and 
seeing  nothing  of  them,  left  fifteen  of  his  crew  well  provided 
with  provisions,  to  keep  possession  of  the  island,  and  returned 
to  England  ;  but  they  were  never  heard  of  after,  having  been 
most  probably  murdered  by  the  Indians.  How  did  the  tribes 
of  Indians  who  inhabited  that  country  receive  Sir  Weaker 
Raleigh  and  the  other  adventurers  ?  With  the  utmost  kindness 
and  hospitality ;  but  they  met  with  only  cruelty  and  ingratitude 
from  the  colonists,  which  no  doubt  roused  their  savage  passions 
and  induced  them  to  defend  themselves,  and  war  against  the 
usurping  foreigners.  When  was  the  next  colony  sent  out  ? 
In  1587.  Sir  Walter  sent  out  one  hundred  and  fifty  adventur- 
ers to  the  same  island  under  Captain  White,  who  remained  but 
a  short  time,  and  returned  to  England  for  pro\isions,  as  they 
could  obtain  none  from  the  natives.  Who  was  the  first  child 
of  English  parents  bom  in  America  ?  The  daughter  of  Captain 
White,  a  Mrs.  Dare,  accompanied  her  father  to  the  island; 
her  daughter  was  bora  there,  and  named  Virginia  Dare. 
What  was  the  fate  of  this  colony?  In  consequence  of  the 
threatened  invasion  of  England  by  the  famous  Spanish  Armada, 
it  was  three  years  before  Raleigh  could  send  relief  to  the 
colony  by  Captain  White,  who,  when  he  arrived  there,  found 
not  one  to  tell  their  fate  ;  and  fearing  for  himself,  returned  at 
once  to  England,  leaving  not  a  single  English  settler  on  the 
shores  of  America.  How  did  this  unfortunate  issue  aflfect 
Raleigh  ?  He  was  so  much  distressed  and  annoyed  by  these 
repeated  failures,  that  he  was  easily  induced  to  sell  his  patent 


BARTHOLOMEW  GOSNOLD  169 

to  a  company  of  merchants  in  London  in  the  year  1589.  Did 
they  attempt  to  colonize  ?  No ;  they  were  satisfied  with  a  paltry 
traffic  with  the  natives,  and  made  no  attempt  to  penetrate  far- 
ther into  the  country,  or  form  a  settlement.  When  did  the 
next  expedition  set  forth?  In  1602.  Bartholomew  Gosnold, 
with  thirty- two  men,  sailed  from  Falmouth  on  the  western  coast 
of  England,  and  steering  due  west,  was  the  first  English  com- 
mander who  reached  this  country  by  this  shorter  and  more  direct 
course.  tWhere  did  he  land  ?  He  made  the  coast  near  Nahant, 
but  failing  to  find  a  good  harbor,  he  bore  to  the  south,  dis- 
covered and  gave  the  name  to  Cape  Cod,  which  was  the  first 
ground  in  New  England  ever  trod  by  Englishmen.  Saihng 
thence  round  Nantucket,  he  discovered  and  named  Martha's 
Vineyard,  entered  Buzzard's  bay,  and  finding  a  fertile  island,  he 
gave  it  the  name  of  Elizabeth,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  Did  he 
leave  a  colony  there  ?  He  built  a  fort  and  storehouse,  and 
prepared  to  leave  a  colony,  but  the  natives  appearing  hostile, 
the  men  refused  to  remain,  and  he  returned  to  England,  making 
the  passage  in  five  weeks,  the  shortest  then  known.  When  did 
the  French  again  send  a  company  to  this  continent  ?  In  1603. 
Henry  IV.  of  France  granted  by  letters  patent,  to  the  Sieur 
de  Monts,  the  country  called  Acadia,  extending  from  the  40th 
to  the  46  th  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  next  year  de  Monts 
sailed,  taking  Samuel  Champlain  as  his  pilot,  and  having 
doubled  Cape  Sable  or  Sandy  Cape,  entered  an  extensive  bay, 
which  they  called  "  La  baye  Francaise,"  now  the  bay  of  Fun- 
dy ;  on  whose  eastern  side  he  founded  Port  Royal. ,  What 
further  discoveries  did  they  make  ?  Proceeding  to  explore 
this  bay,  they  discovered  and  named  the  rivers  St.  John  and 
St.  Croix,  and  sailed  along  the  coast  to  Cape  Cod.  What 
measures  did  the  English  adopt,  at  this  encroachment  on  their 
claims  ?  James  the  First,  of  England,  divided  that  portion  of 
North  America  which  lies  between  the  34th  and  45th  degrees  of 
north  latitude  into  two  divisions  ;  granting  the  southern  part  or 
first  colony  of  Virginia,  lying  between  the  34th  and  41st  de- 
grees, to  the  London  company  of  merchants,  and  the  northern 
portion  to  the  Plymouth  company.  .  What  measures  did  the  Ply- 
mouth company  take?  In  1607,  they  sent  out  admirals 
Raleigh  and  Gilbert,  with  a  hundred  planters,  under  Capt. 
George  Popham,  their  president.  They  landed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Kennebec  river,  where  they  built  and  fortified  a  store- 
house ;  but  in  two  or  three  months  the  ships  returned  to  Eng- 
land, leaving  only  forty-five  men  behind  them.  What  was  the 
fate  of  this  small  colony  ?     Their  sufferings  during  the  winter 

15 


170  SETTLEMENT  OF  JAMESTOWN 

were  most  severe ;  the  president  died,  they  lost  their  stoie* 
house  by  fire,  and  tlie  next  year  they  returned  to  England 
much  dispirited  ;  and  this  was  the  first  and  only  attempt  made 
to  settle  that  northern  portion  of  the  country  until  1620.  How 
long  a  period  had  now  elapsed  since  the  discovery  of  North 
America  by  the  Cabots  ?  One  hundred  and  ten  years ;  and 
twenty-four  since  Raleigh  planted  his  first  colony  on  the  island 
of  Roanoke;  and  yet  there  was  not  in  1607  one  Englishman 
settled  in  America.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  first  effectual 
attempt  made  to  settle  the  country?  In  1607,  an  armament 
consisting  of  105  men,  in  a  small  vessel  of  105  tons,  and  t\vj 
barks,  sailed  from  England  under  the  command  of  Capt.  New- 
port, and  were  four  months  in  making  the  voyage.  What 
land  did  they  first  discover  ?  A  promontory  which  they  called 
Cape  Henry,  the  southern  boundary  of  Chesapeake  Bay ;  and 
keeping  along  the  southern  shore,  they  sailed  up  a  river  called 
by  the  natives  Powhattan,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
James  river,  i  What  was  their  first  step  ?  They  built  a  fort 
and  commenced  a  toAvn,  to  which,  in  honor  of  King  James,  they 
gave  the  name  of  Jamestown,  which,  although  it  has  never 
become  a  place  of  much  importance,  boasts  of  being  the  first 
permanent  English  settlement  in  America.  How  was  the  col- 
ony governed  ?  By  a  council  of  seven  persons,  with  a  president 
chosen  from  among  their  number,  their  form  of  government 
having  been  drawn  up  by  King  James.  Whom  did  the}  choose 
for  their  first  president  ?  Edward  Wingfield,  the  most  unsuit- 
able among  them ;  Capt.  John  Smith,  the  man  appointed  by 
the  king,  having  been  excluded  by  envy  from  even  having  a  seat 
in  the  council.  How  did  the  colonists  prosper  ?  They  were 
soon  involved  in  contests  with  the  Indians,  the  result  of  their 
cruelty  towards  them,  and  under  their  gathering  misfortunes 
were  obliged  to  depose  Wingfield  and  appoint  Capt.  Smith,  a 
man  of  grea!;  ability  and  undaunted  courage,  in  his  place. 
What  romantic  incident  is  connected  with  Capt.  Smith's  his- 
tory ?  While  engaged  in  hunting,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Indians,  who  carried  him  before  their  chief,  Powhattan  ;  he 
was  condemned  to  death,  and  it  was  on  the  point  of  being 
carried  into  execution,  when  Pocahontas,  the  favorite  daughter 
of  their  chief,  having  in  vain  implored  mercy  for  him,  rushed 
forward,  and  placing  her  head  on  that  of  the  captive,  seemed 
determined  to  share  his  fate.  ^What  was  the  result  of  her 
interference  ?  Powhattan  relented  and  set  the  prisoner  free  ; 
Pocahontas  was  frequently  afterwards  of  great  service  to  the 
eolonists  in  giving  them  information  of  the  hostile  designs  of 


DEATH  OF  POCAHONTAS.  171 

the  Indians.  What  was  her  ultimate  fate  ?  She  married  Mr. 
Rolfe,  a  planter,  and  accompanied  him  to  England,  where  she 
was  baptized  and  instructed  in  the  Christian  religion  ;  she  died 
at  the  age  of  22,  leaving  one  son,  from  whom  are  descended 
some  of  the  most  respectable  families  in  Virginia.  What  was 
the  state  of  the  colony  in  1608  ?  Disease  and  famine  had 
greatly  diminished  their  numbers,  but  new  arrivals  occurring, 
they  increased  to  200.  What  became  of  Capt.  Smith  ?  Hav- 
ing been  severely  injured  by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder,  he 
returned  to  England  in  1609  ;  the  colonists  being  reduced  to 
the  number  of  60  persons,  formed  the  same  resolution.  Did 
they  fulfil  their  intention  ?  No  :  meeting  Lord  Delaware,  the 
appointed  governor,  they  were  induced  to  return,  and  in  1619 
their  numbers  were  increased  by  the  arrival  of  1216  new  set- 
tlers, principally  adventurers  in  search  of  gold.  What  expe- 
dient was  adopted  to  induce  them  to  settle  permanently  ? 
Young  women  were  sent  from  England,  and  sold  to  them  for 
wives.  What  was  the  price  of  a  wife  ?  At  first  100  pounds 
of  tobacco,  but  as  their  numbers  decreased  they  brought  150 
pounds.*,i  What  was  the  tobacco  valued  at  ?  Three  shillings  a 
pound.  'What  was  the  commencement  of  slavery  in  English 
America?  In  1620  twenty  negroes  were  carried  to  Virginia, 
in  a  Dutch  vessel,  and  sold  as  slaves.  What  did  the  colonists 
now  turn  their  attention  to  ?  Agricultural  pursuits,  particu- 
larly the  cultivation  of  tobacco.  What  kind  of  persons  did 
King  James  send  to  the  colony  at  this  time  ?  Convicts,  and 
all  idle  and  disorderly  persons  then  in  custody  for  their  offences. 
What  happened  to  the  French  colony  in  Virginia  at  this  pe- 
riod ?  Capt.  Argall  was  sent  from  Jamestown  to  dispossess 
them.  Did  he  succeed  ?  Yes  ;  he  destroyed  Port  Royal,  and 
all  the  French  settlements  in  Acadia.  What  did  he  do  on  his 
way  back  ?  He  visited  the  Dutch  settlement  of  Manhattan, 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  King  James, 
and  the  Dutch  traders  immediately  acknowledged  his  suprema- 
cy, and  under  him,  that  of  th2  governor  of  Virginia.  How  did 
the  colonists  succeed  ?  They  enjoyed  great  prosperity  till  the 
year  1622.  What  occurred  then?  The  Indians  under  Ope- 
cancanough  attempted  a  general  massacre,  and  although  the 
plot  was  discovered,  they  succeeded  in  killing  about  347  persons. -f" 
What  was  the  result  of  this  attempt  ?  A  war  of  extermination 
followed,  then  a  famine,  and  in  1624,  out  of  9,000  persons  only 
1,800  remained.  How  were  these  losses  repaired  ?  By  the 
arrival  of  new  settlers ;  but  the  colony  suffered  much  by  re- 
Btrictions  on  its  trade,  and  by  the  arbitrary  government  of  Sit 


172  LANDING  OF  THE  PILGRIMS. 

John  Harvey.  What  did  the  population  amount  to  in  1660? 
About  30,000  ;  and  in  the  succeeding  28  years  their  number  wag 
doubled.  Who  was  Henry  Hudson  ?  An  Enghshman  in  the 
Dutch  service,  who,  when  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage  to  In- 
dia discovered  the  noble  river  that  bears  his  name.  Who  made 
the  fii*st  permanent  settlements  on  the  Hudson  ?  The  Dutch,  who 
in  1614  erected  two  forts,  one  at  Albany  and  the  other  on  Man- 
hattan Island.  What  name  did  the  Dutch  give  to  their  settle- 
ment on  Manhattan  Island  ?  New  Amsterdam,  which  it  retained 
till  it  was  taken  by  the  English",  who  called  it  New  York.  What 
were  the  names  of  the  Dutch  governors  ?  Van  T wilier,  Kieft, 
and  Stuyvesant.  What  happened  to  the  Dutch  colony  in  1664  ? 
Charles  II.,  of  England,  being  at  war  with  the  Dutch,  granted 
the  country  to  his  brother  the  Duke  of  York,  and  Governor 
Stuyvesant  was  compelled  to  capitulate  to  an  English  force 
under  Colonel  Nicholls.  Who  were  the  Pilgrim  Fathers? 
They  were  English  puritans,  who  were  compelled  to  leave  their 
country  by  the  persecutions  that  sect  labored  undoi-.  When 
did  they  arrive  in  America  ?  They  landed  at  Plymouth  on  tiie 
22d  of  December,  1620,  and  founded  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment in  New  England.  How  did  the  New  England  colony 
succeed  ?  Their  suflferings  and  difl&culties  were  extreme,  but 
by  perseverance  they  were  enabled  to  overcome  the  rigors  of 
their  situation.>  What  were  the  names  of  their  first  governors  ? 
John  Carver  was  the  first,  and  he  was  succeeded  in  1621  by 
William  Bradford.  What  did  they  do  to  protect  themselves 
from  the  Indians  ?  They  organized  a  military  force,  the  com- 
mand of  which  was  given  to  Miles  Standish.  Were  the  Indians 
disposed  to  be  hostile  ?  No,  they  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
them,  which  Avas  confirmed  by  their  principal  chief.  What 
was  the  name  of  this  chief?  Massasoit,  from  whom  Massa- 
chusetts takes  its  name.  How  long  was  this  treaty  observed  ? 
For  a  period  of  fifty-four  years.  When  was  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay  founded?  In  1628,  by  John  Endicott,  who 
formed  a  settlement  a!:  Naumkeag,  now  Salem.  When  and  b\ 
whom  was  Boston  first  settled  ?  In  1630,  by  1,500  persons, 
under  John  Winthrop.  When  was  New  Hampsliire  settled  ? 
In  1623,  at  Dover  and  Portsmouth,  by  persons  sent  out  by 
John  Mason  and  Ftrdinando  Gorges,  to  whom  the  country  had 
been  granted.  When  were  these  settlements  annexed  to  Massa- 
chusetts ?  In  1641,  and  so  continued  till  1679,  when  a  separate 
government  Avtls  instituted  for  New  Hampshire.  When  and 
where  was  the  settlement  of  Connecticut  commenced  ?  In  1635, 
at  Windsor  and  Weathersfield.     When  and  by  whom  was  the 


WARS  WITH  THE  INDIANS.  173 

colony  of  New  Haven  founded  ?  In  1638,  by  Theophilus  Eaton, 
John  Davenport,  and  others.  When  was  the  settlement  of 
Rhode  Island  commenced  ?  In  1636,  at  Providence,  by  Roger 
Williams,  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  who  had  been  banished  from 
Massachusetts  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions.  .^-When  was 
the  first  college  founded  in  America  ?  In  two  years  after  the 
settlement  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Harvard  College  was  founded 
at  Cambridge ;  it  takes  its  name  from  Mr.  John  Harvard,  who, 
dying  at  Charleston,  in  1638,  bequeathed  £800  for  the  purpose 
of  erecting  a  college.  What  were  the  principal  characteristics 
of  the  New  England  colonists  ?  They  were  enterprising  and 
industrious,  strongly  attached  to  liberty,  piety,  and  justice  ;  they 
were  not,  however,  free  from  vices  and  follies,  some  peculiar  to 
themselves,  and  others  to  the  age  in  which  they  lived.  What 
troubles  had  the  colony  of  Connecticut  to  contend  with  at  this 
period  ?  They  were  involved  in  i  war  with  the  Pequods,  a 
tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  the  southeast  part  of  the  state  ;  the 
Indians  suffered  a  severe  defeat  from  the  colonists  under  Captain 
Mason,  losing  from  six  to  seven  hundred  of  their  number,  and 
most  of  their  wigwams  burnt.  What  measures  did  the  New 
England  colonies  adopt  for  the  general  security  and  welfare  '^ 
In  1643,  the  four  colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  New  Ht^ven. 
Plymouth,  and  Connecticut,  formed  themselves  into  a  con- 
federacy, called  the  united  colonies  of  New  England.  How 
were  they  governed  ?  Each  sent  two  delegates,  to  assemble  in 
the  different  colonies  once  a  year,  or  oftener  if  necessary  JlHow 
long  did  this  union  subsist  ?  A  little  more  than  forty  years, 
when  the  colonies  were  deprived  of  their  charters  by  James  II. 
What  was,  the  most  g-3neral  and  destructive  war  in  which  the 
New  England  colonists  were  ever  involved  ?  A  war  with  Philip, 
chief  of  the  Wampanoags,  son  of  Massasoit,  whose  principal 
residence  was  at  Mount  Hope,  in  Rhode  Island.  What  was 
the  character  of  Philip  ?  He  was  a  man  of  great  abilities,  un- 
daunted courage,  and  the  most  uncompromising  enemy  the 
whites  ever  had.  Were  there  other  tribes  engaged  in  this  war  ? 
Yes ;  all  the  surrounding  tribes,  fearing  the  loss  of  their  hunting- 
grounds  from  the  gradual  encroachments  of  the  settlers,  formed 
a  combination,  of  which  PhiHp  was  the  leader.  Give  some 
further  particulars  of  the  war.  It  was  carried  on  with  great  fury 
on  both  sides,  but  finally,  in  a  severe  engagement,  called  the 
swamp  fight,  v/hich  took  place  in  December,  16Y5,  the  colonists 
under  Josiah  Winslow  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  the 
Indians,  about  1,000  of  whom  perished,  besides  many  women  and 
children.    Did  the  Indians  ever  recover  from  the  effects  of  this 

15* 


174  SETTLEMENT  OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 

defeat  ?  Ko ;  they  however  continued  their  depredations,  mas- 
sacring the  inhabitants  and  burning  their  villages,  till  the  death 
of  Philip,  who  was  shot  in  1676,  by  an  Indian  attached  to  the 
band  of  the  famous  Captain  Benjamin  Church^  Did  this  ter- 
minate the  troubles  of  the  New  England  colonists  with  the 
Indians  ?  Yes,  until  the  wars  with  the  French,  who  employed 
the  Indians  as  auxiliaries.  What  was  the  amount  of  the  English 
population  of  the  colonies  at  this  period  ?  About  60,000,  of 
whom  nearly  600  fell  during  the  Indian  war,  besides  the  destruc- 
tion of  several  towns.  Who  was  the  founder  of  Maryland  ?  Sir 
George  Calvert,  afterwards  Lord  Baltimore,  secretary  to  James 
I.  Being  repulsed  in  his  endeavor  to  settle  in  Virginia,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  a  tract  of  land  north  of  the  Potomac,  and  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  it  from  Charles  I.,  but  before  the  patent  was 
made  out  he  died,  and  the  grant  was  given  to  his  eldest  son, 
Cecil  Calvert.  Whence  does  Maryland  takes  its  name  ?  From 
Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I.  Who  was  the  first 
governor  of  Mar}^land  ?  Leonard  Calvert,  brother  of  Cecil, 
who  with  200  persons  commenced  the  settlement  of  St.  Mary's 
in  1634.  When  and  by  whom  was  Pennsylvania  settled  ?  In 
1682,  by  William  Penn,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name.  How  did 
he  obtain  a  grant  of  the  land  ?  In  payment  of  a  debt  due  to 
his  father,  Admiral  Penn,  by  the  British  government.  By  whom 
was  he  accompanied  ?  By  2,000  persons,  principally  of  the 
sect  called  Quakers,  or  Friends,  to  which  he  also  belonged. 
When  was  Philadelphia  founded  ?  In  1683.  Who  were  the 
Quakers  ?  A  religious  sect  founded  by  George  Fox,  the  son 
of  an  English  weaver,  in  1648.4-For  what  was  the  government 
of  William  Penn  remarkable  ?  Religious  toleration,  kindness 
and  humanity  in  his  intercourse  with  the  Indians,  from  whom  he 
obtained  by  fair  purchase  as  much  land  as  he  required.  Was 
this  course  pursued  by  his  successors  ?  Yes,  the  treaty  with 
the  Indians  was  preserved  inviolate  for  more  than  seventy  years. 
What  was  the  effect  Df  this  policy  ?  The  rapid  increase  of  the 
colony,  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  holding  out 
inducements  to  all  oppressed  persons  in  Europe,  to  seek  an 
asylum  in  Pennsylvania.  Which  were  the  first  colonies  in  which 
ihe  principles  of  religious  toleration  were  acted  upon  ?  Rhode 
Island,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania ;  all  the  other  colonies  in  the 
early  stage  of  their  history  having  persecuted  those  who  differed 
from  them  in  religion.  What  tended  to  increase  the  emigration 
from  England  to  America  ?  The  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
Stuart  family,  who  had  occupied  the  throne  since  the  first  per- 
manent English  settlement  in  North  America.     How  did  they 


SIR  EDMUND  ANDROS.  17S 

conduct  themselves  towards  the  colonies  ?  They  took  their 
charters  from  them,  and  gave  them  governors  whose  oppressive 
measures  gave  great  dissatisfaction.  In  what  year  were  their 
charters  taken  from  them,  and  by  whose  influence  was  it  accom- 
plished ?  In  1683,  by  Edward  Randolph  and  others,  who 
prejudiced  the  king  and  council  against  them.  Who  was  the 
governor  of  New  York  at  this  period  ?  Sir  Edmund  Andros, 
who  was  also  appointed  governor  of  New  England  in  1686. 
What  steps  did  Sir  E.  Andros  take  on  his  arrival  in  Boston  ? 
He  commanded  the  colonies  to  surrender  their  charters.  That  of 
Massachusetts  was  given  up,  but  Captain  Wadsworth  concealed 
the  charter  of  Connecticut  in  a  hollow  oak  in  Hartford.  What 
occurred  at  this  period  in  England  ?  The  revciution  of  1688, 
which  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  James  XL,  and  the  accession 
of  William  and  Mary  to  the  British  throne.  What  was  thought 
of  this  in  America  ?  It  gave  the  greatest  satisfaction  to  the 
colonists  ;  they  immediately  seized  Sir  E.  Andros,  Randolph,  and 
other  obnoxious  persons,  and  kept  them  in  confinement  till  they 
were  sent  to  England  for  trial.  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island 
also  resumed  their  charters  and  former  mode  of  government. 
What  was  done  with  regard  to  the  charter  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  ?  The  -old  charter  was  refused,  but  a  new  one  less  favor- 
able to  liberty  was  granted  to  them  in  1692,  uniting  the  colonies 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  Plymouth  under  the  name  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  annexing  to  it  the  provinces  of  Maine  and  Nova 
Scotia.  What  were  the  principal  features  in  the  new  charter  ? 
The  appointments  to  the  principal  offices  were  taken  from  the 
people  and  vested  in  the  crown  :  the  only  privilege  which  was 
allowed  to  them  was  the  right  of  choosing  their  own  representa- 
tives. What  was  done  in  order  to  render  this  charter  more 
acceptable  to  the  people  ?  Sir  William  Phipps,  a  native  of 
Maine,  was  appointed  governor.  How  did  the  revolution  in 
England  affect  the  colonists  ?  It  partially  restored  their  liberties, 
but  subjected  them  to  the  evils  of  a  war  with  the  French  and 
Indians.  How  long  did  these  wars  continue?  From  1690  to 
the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  and  again  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  from  1V02  to  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 
What  were  the  effects  of  this  war  on  the  colonies  ?  It  materially 
checked  their  growth,  large  tracts  of  land  were  desolated, 
several  towns  burnt,  and  nearly  8,000  young  men  are  computed 
to  have  perished.  For  how  long  a  period  after  this  were  they 
at  peace  ?  For  thirty-one  years,  when  they  were  again  involved 
in  a  war  that  occurred  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  in 
1744.     What   was   the   principal   occurrence  of  this   war  in 


176  CAPTURE  OF  LOUISBURG. 

America  ?  The  capture  of  Louisburg  from  the  French,  by 
troops  from  New  England  under  Sir  William  Pepperell,  aided 
by  Commodore  Warren  with  four  ships  from  England.  Give 
some  account  of  Louisburg.  Louisburg  is  situated  on  Cape 
Breton,  and  having  been  fortified  at  great  expense,  was  called 
the  Gibraltar  of  America;  it  surrendered  on  the  16t'n  of  June, 
1745.  What  was  the  result  of  the  reduction  of  this  fortress? 
It  encouraged  the  colonists  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  all  the 
French  possessions  in  North  America,  and  so  exasperated  the 
French,  that  in  1746  they  sent  an  armament  under  the  Duke 
d'Anville  to  recapture  Louisburg  and  harass  the  colonists  as 
much  as  possible.  What  was  the  force  of  this  armament  ?  It 
consisted  of  eleven  ships  of  the  line,  thirty  small  vessels  of  war, 
and  three  transports,  with  3,000  regular  troops,  and  40,000 
stand  of  arms,  for  the  use  of  the  Canadians  and  Indians,  and 
altogether  was  the  largest  expedition  that  had  ever  been  sent  to 
America.  What  was  the  result  of  this  expedition  ?  A  long 
and  disastrous  passage,  great  mortality  among  the  troops,  and 
the  death  of  both  commanders,  so  disheartened  the  French  that 
they  returned  without  having  accomplished  any  thing  but  alann- 
ing  the  colonists ;  but,  by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  in 
1748,  Louisburg,  to  the  great  mortification  of  the  colonists, 
was  restored  to  the  French.  What  part  of  the  country  did  the 
French  claim  ?  From  the  discoveries  of  Champlain,  Marquette, 
La  Salle,  and  others,  they  claimed  all  the  country  watered  by 
the  Mississippi  and  its  branches,  and  that  occupied  by  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  tributaries  of  the  lakes.  By  what  right 
did  the  British  claim  this  land  ?  By  the  discoveries  of  Cabot, 
to  whom  they  had  granted  the  whole  country  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  also  by  a  title  they  had  bought  from  the 
chiefs  of  the  Iroquois.  What  was  the  Ohio  Company  ?  It  was 
an  association  of  gentlemen,  principally  Virginians,  who  obtained 
a  grant  of  600,000  acres  on  the  Ohio  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing on  a  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.  How  did  this  company 
succeed  ?  They  surveyed  the  land  and  built  a  few  trading 
houses,  but  the  French,  who  considered  this  an  encroachment 
on  their  rights,  after  complaining  to  the  governors  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  seized  some  of  the  traders  and  imprisoned 
them  at  Presque  Isle:  1750.  What  was  the  result  of  this 
hostile  measure  on  the  part  of  the  French  ?  Robert  Dinwiddle, 
the  governor  of  Virginia,  having  laid  the  matter  before  tlie  as- 
sembly of  that  state,  they  determined  to  send  a  messenger  to 
St.  Pierre,  the  French  commandant,  requiring  him  to  withdraw 
from  the  territory.     Who  was  the  person  chosen  for  this  pur- 


DEFEAT  AND  DEATH  OF  BRADDOCK.         177 

pose  ?  George  Washington,  then  in  his  twenty-second  year : 
1752.  What  was  St.  Pierre's  answer  to  Dinwiddie  ?  He  re- 
phed  that  lie  had  no  authority  to  discuss  treaties,  that  he  acted 
under  the  authority  of  the  Governor-general,  Marquis  du  Quesne. 
How  did  the  British  government  act  under  these  circumstances  ? 
They  determined  on  four  expeditions  against  the  French,  for 
which  purpose,  troops  were  raised  in  the  different  colonies,  and 
forces  sent  from  England  ;  Washington  was  appointed  Lieut. 
Colonel  of  the  Virginian  troops.  Name  the  commanders  and  points 
of  attack  of  these  expeditions.  General  Braddock  was  to  attack 
Fort  Du  Quesne  with  two  English  regiments  and  the  troops  under 
Washington,  Governor  Shirley  was  to  lead  the  American  regu- 
lars and  Indians  against  Niagara,  the  militia  of  the  northern 
colonies,  commanded  by  General  Johnston,  were  to  attack  Crown 
Point,  and  Nova  Scotia  was  to  be  invaded  by  3,000  men  under 
generals  Monckton  and  Winslow.  How  did  the  expedition 
against  Du  Quesne  terminate  ?  General  Braddock  being  sur- 
prised by  a  party  of  Indians,  was  entirely  defeated,  and  he  him- 
self slain  ;  of  eighty-eight  officers,  sixty-four  were  killed  or 
wounded  ;  Washington  remained  unhurt,  although  he  had  four 
balls  through  his  coat  and  two  horses  shot  under  him,  and 
succeeded  in  leading  off  the  remaining  troops.  What  was  the 
result  of  that  against  Crown  Point  ?  Gen.  Johnston  with  5,000 
men  entirely  defeated  Baron  Dieskau,  but  nothing  was  done  to- 
wards taking  Crown  Point.  In  this  battle.  Baron  Dieskau  was 
killed,  together  with  700  or  800  men.  How  was  Johnston  re- 
warded for  this  action  ?  He  received  a  baronetcy  and  £5,000, 
but  it  was  thought  at  the  time  that  the  credit  belonged  equally 
to  Gen.  Lyman.  What  Avas  the  result  of  the  expedition  against 
Niagara  ?  The  troops  under  Shirley  were  delayed  at  Oswego 
waiting  for  supplies,  till  it  was  too  late  in  the  season  to  effect 
any  thing.  When  was  war  formally  declared  between  the  two 
countries  ?  In  1756,  after  having  been  carried  on  for  two  years. 
What  generals  wer3  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  opposing 
armies  ?  The  French  were  com.manded  by  the  Marquis  de 
Montcalm,  and  the  English  at  first  by  the  Earl  of  Loudon  and 
afterwards  by  General  Abercrombie.  For  what  was  the  cam- 
paign of  1757  chiefly  memorable  ?  For  the  cold-blooded  mas- 
Bacre  of  the  garrison  of  Fort  William  Henry,  by  the  Indian 
auxiliaries  of  the  French.  Give  some  account  of  the  massacre. 
Montcalm,  the  French  commander,  attacked  Fort  William  Henry, 
commanded  by  Col.  Munroe,  with  9,000  regulars,  Canadians  and 
Indians  ;  on  the  capitulation  of  the  fort,  the  Indians,  roused  by 
the  hope  of  plunder,  attacked  the  unarmed  garrison,  who  had 


178  BRITISH  DEFEATED  AT  TICCNDEROGA. 

been  promised  an  escort  of  French  troops  to  protect  them  from 
these  outrages,  and  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  them,  inchiding 
all  the  women  and  children ;  and  the  few  survivors  were  met  by 
some  forces  under  General  Webb,  and  conducted  into  his  camp. 
What  was  the  issue  of  the  expedition  to  Nova  Scotia  ?  Tliey 
arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  on  the  1st  of  June ;  they  were  then 
joined  by  300  British  troops,  and  proceeding  against  Beau  Sejour, 
took  possession  of  it  in  five  days,  and  the  French  evacuated  the 
country  ;  thus  Nova  Scotia  was  taken  with  the  loss  of  only  three 
men.  What  dispute  arose  at  this  time  between  the  governor 
and  the  assembly  of  Virginia  ?  The  proprietors  wished  to 
exempt  their  own  lands  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  which  were 
raised  for  the  defence  of  those  lands ;  to  settle  this  dispute, 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  sent  to  England,  and  the  business  was 
soon  arranged,  the  proprietors  submitting,  provided  the  taxes 
were  fan*  and  equitable.  What  change  took  place  in  the 
English  ministry  at  this  period  ?  William  Pitt,  afterwards 
Lord  Chatham,  was  created  prime  minister,  and  his  assurances 
that  the  colonists  should  choose  the  officers  for  their  own 
troops  induced  them  to  increase  their  army  to  20,000.  What 
further  measures  did  Pitt  employ  to  assist  the  colonists,  and 
terminate  the  war.  He  sent  12,000  men  under  General  Am- 
herst, an  armament  was  sent  out  under  Admiral  Boscawen, 
and  he  appointed  Abercrombie  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  What  was  the  number  of  the 
British  and  colonial  troops  at  this  time  ?  The  colonial  troops 
amounted  to  20,000,  the  British  to  30,000  ;  three  expedi- 
tions were  resolved  on — against  Louisburg,  Ticonderoga,  and 
Fort  Du  Quesne.  Who  were  the  commanders  of  the  expe- 
dition aofainst  Louisburo^  ?  General  Amherst,  and  under  him. 
General  Wolfe,  with  a  force  of  14,000  men,  and  a  large  naval 
armament  under  Boscawen.  What  was  the  result  of  this 
expedition  ?  After  a  desperate  resistance  the  fortress  surren- 
dered, and  a  quantity  of  military  stores  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  British,  on  the  6th  of  July,  1*758  :  with  Louisburg,  the 
whole  island  of  Cape  Breton  and  that  of  St.  Johns  became 
subject  to  the  British.  What  was  the  result  of  that  against 
Ticonderoga  ?  Through  the  unskilful  management  of  General 
Abercrombie,  who  attacked  the  fort  without  artillery,  the 
British  were  entirely  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  2,000 
killed  and  wounded  ;  here  also  fell  Lord  Howe,  a  young  noble- 
man much  beloved  by  the  colonists.  What  did  Abercrombie 
then  do  ?  He  detached  Col.  Bradstreet,  with  5,000  provincial 
troops,  against  Frontenac,  which  was  taken,  and  with  it  large 


DEATH  OF  WOLFE  AND  MONTCALM.  179 

quantities  of  supplies  intended  for  the  French  army  and  their 
Indian  allies.  By  whom  was  the  expedition  against  Fort  Du 
Quesne  commanded  ?  By  General  Forbes,  who,  contrary  to 
the  advice  of  Washington,  insisted  on  opening  a  new  road  from 
Raystown  to  the  Ohio.  What  were  the  consequences  of  this 
measure  ?  The  army  suffered  so  much  from  toil  and  the 
severity  of  the  weather,  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  aban- 
doning the  expedition  ;  but  receiving  intelligence  of  the  weak- 
aess  of  the  French,  they  continued  their  route,  and  reached 
Ou  Quesne  to  find  it  in  ruins,  the  French  having  abandoned 
ind  set  fire  to  it  the  previous  night.  What  were  the  further 
/esults  of  this  expedition  ?  The  death  of  General  Forbes  from 
tatigue,  and  peace  with  the  Indians,  who  found  it  more  advan- 
tageous to  side  with  the  British  than  the  French  ;  a  new  fort 
was  erected  by  the  British  on  the  ruins  of  Du  Quesne,  called 
Fort  Pitt,  now  Pittsburg.  What  was  the  object  of  the  cam- 
paign of  1759  ?  The  reduction  of  Canada,  for  which  purpose 
the  army  was  divided  into  three  divisions.  By  whom  were 
they  commanded,  and  what  were  the  points  of  attack  ?  Gen. 
Amherst,  who  superseded  Gen.  Abercrombie  in  the  chief 
command  after  the  disaster  at  Ticonderoga,  was  ordered  to  take 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  Gen.  Wolfe  was  to  make  an 
attempt  on  Quebec,  and  the  third  division  under  Gen.  Prideaux 
was  to  reduce  the  stronghold  of  Niagara.  How  did  the  divis- 
ions under  Amherst  and  Prideaux  succeed  ?  On  reaching 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  Amherst  found  them  deserted  ; 
and  Niagara  surrendered  after  a  severe  resistance,  during  which 
Gen.  Prideaux  lost  his  life  by  the  bursting  of  a  shell.  Give 
some  account  of  Gen.  Wolfe's  expedition  against  Quebec.  This 
celebrated  general,  with  a  force  of  8,000  men,  landed  on  the 
L-land  of  Orleans,  and  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
reduce  the  city.  He  then  determined  to  scale  the  precipice  on 
which  the  fortifications  were  built,  and  thus  reach  the  level 
plain  called  the  Heights  of  Abraham.  How  did  he  succeed  in 
this  daring  attempt  ?  He  gained  the  Heights  during  the  night, 
and  in  the  morning  Montcalm  learning  with  surprise  of  this 
achievement,  prepared  to  give  him  battle.  Give  some  account 
of  this  battle.  The  French  were  entirely  defeated,  with  the 
loss  of  many  men  and  their  general,  Montcalm ;  the  heroic 
Wolfe  also  perished  in  this  contest.  Relate  some  particulars 
of  the  deaths  of  these  generals.  Wolfe  received  three  wounds, 
the  last  proving  fatal ;  faint  with  the  loss  of  blood,  he  was 
roused  by  the  cry,  They  fly  !  they  fly !  "  Who  fly  ?"  he  ex- 
claimed.      "  The  enemy,"  was  the  reply.     "  Then,"  said  he, 


180  PONTIAC,  CHIEF  OF  THE  OTTAWAS. 

**  I  die  content,"  and  expired.  Not  less  heroic  was  the  death 
of  Montcalm  ;  on  being  told  his  wound  was  mortal,  he  rejoiced. 
**  for,"  said  he,  "  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Que- 
bec." What  were  the  results  of  this  battle  ?  The  French, 
panic-struck,  signed  the  capitulation  of  Quebec  five  days  after- 
wards, and  retired  to  Montreal.  What  further  steps  did  the 
contending  armies  take  ?  The  French  under  Monsieur  de  Levi 
attacked  Quebec  in  the  spring  of  1760,  but  were  unable  to 
effect  any  thing,  and  Gen.  Murray  being  reinforced.  Monsieur 
de  Levi  abandoned  the  siege.  What  did  Gen.  Amherst  now 
do  ?  He  assembled  all  the  Br  tish  forces  and  invested  Mon- 
treal, and  the  governor,  Vaudriel,  unable  to  resist  hjm,  surren- 
dered all  the  French  possessions  in  Canada,  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  and  Nova  Scotia.  What  further  troubles  had  the 
colonists  at  this  period  ?  They  were  involved  in  constant  wars 
with  the  Indians  on  the  w^estern  and  southern  frontiers.  What 
great  Indian  chief  distinguished  himself  in  these  wars  ?  Pon- 
tiac,  chief  of  the  Ottawas.  What  bold  plan  did  he  resolve  on  ? 
Having  by  his  great  influence  united  all  the  northwestern  tribes 
under  his  command,  he  resolved  on  a  simultaneous  attack  on 
all  the  British  posts  on  the  lakes.  How  did  he  succeed  ? 
He  captured  nine  of  the  British  forts  ;  among  others,  Maumee 
and  Mackinaw.  What  stratagem  did  he  employ  against  Mack- 
inaw ?  He  pretended  to  be  playing  ball  with  his  warriors 
outside  the  fort,  and  threw  the  ball  over  the  enclosure.  The 
Indians  climbed  over  after  it,  and  surprising  the  unprepared 
garrison,  took  the  fort  with  great  slaughter.  Major  Henry,  the 
commandant,  being  one  of  the  few  that  escaped.  What  was 
the  cause  of  the  failure  of  his  attack  on  Detroit  ?  An  Indian 
squaw  who  had  been  kindly  treated  by  the  whites  betrayed  his 
designs,  and  when  Pontiac  and  his  warriors  entered  the  fort 
under  pretence  of  holding  a  council,  they  were  immediately 
surrounded,  and  arms  being  found  concealed  under  their  blan- 
kets, they  were  turned  out,  without  having  been  able  to  effect 
their  design.  What  put  an  end  to  these  wars  ?  The  peace  of 
Paris,  signed  in  1763,  which  gave  to  the  British  all  the  north- 
ern possessions  of  the  French  in  America.  When  did  the 
Moravians  come  to  America,  and  who  were  they?  In  1740; 
they  were  Germans  wb?  were  driven  from  their  native  country 
by  religious  persecution.  What  were  they  celebrated  for  ? 
Their  success  as  missionaries  among  the  Indians.  What  great 
events  do  we  now  come  to  in  the  history  of  America  ?  The 
causes  which  led  America  to  declare  her  independence  of  the 
mother  country.     What  were  the  first  of  these  causes  ?     The 


THE  STAMP  ACT.  181 

stamp  duty  and  other  taxes,  proposed  to  be  laid  on  the  colonies 
by  Lord  Grenville,  in  1764.  What  reasons  did  England  give 
for  imposing  such  taxes  ?  The  great  expenses  incurred  by  the 
wars  in  America,  which  had  increased  her  national  ^ebt  to  a 
great  amount.  What  was  the  "reply  of  the  colonists  to  this 
reasoning  ?  That  they  had  already  contributed  more  in  pro- 
portion to  their  means  than  Great  Britain  had,  and  that  by  the 
advantages  she  would  derive  from  the  monopoly  of  their  com- 
merce, she  was  equally  interested  in  their  defence ;  they  also 
insisted  that  they  could  not  legally  be  taxed,  except  through 
their  own  representatives.  When  was  the  stamp  act  passed  ? 
On  the  2d  of  March,  1765,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  in  both 
houses  of  parliament,  and  the  royal  assent  was  also  freely 
given.  How  was  this  received  in  America  ?  It  roused  the 
colonies  of  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  and  New  York  to  a  deter- 
mined opposition.  What  was  done  in  Boston  and  New  York  ? 
In  Boston  the  bells  tolled  as  for  a  funeral,  the  houses  of  the 
stamp  officers  were  broken  into,  their  persons  insulted,  and  their 
property  destroyed.  In  New  York  they  hawked  the  Act 
through  the  streets,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Folly  of  England 
and  Ruin  of  America ;"  the  merchants  also  agreed  not  to  im- 
port any  more  goods  from  England,  till  the  act  was  repealed. 
What  was  done  in  Virginia  ?  Patrick  Henry,  a  high-spirited 
and  eloquent  young  lawyer,  a  member  of  the  house  of  Bur- 
gesses, introduced  five  resolutions  asserting  their  rights  and 
privileges,  and  declaring  that  they  were  not  bound  to  obey  any 
laws  taxing  the  colonists,  save  such  as  were  passed  by  them- 
selves. What  was  his  celebrated  speech  on  this  occasion  ? 
Alluding  to  George  III.  taxing  the  colonists,  he  said,  "  Caesar 
had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I.  his  Cromwell,  and  George  III. — "  he 
was  here  interrupted  by  the  cry  of  "  treason  !"  Pausing  for  a 
moment  he  continued,  "  and  George  III.  may  profit  by  their 
example."  What  brought  about  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  ? 
A  change  in  the  British  ministry  and  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
Lord  Camden,  and  others.  When  was  the  first  continental 
congress  held?  On  the  7th  of  October,  1765:  nine  of  the 
colonies  seift  delegates  to  New  York,  the  others,  afraid  of 
committing  themselves,  refused.  Name  the  nine  colonies  who 
sent  delegates.  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
South  Carolina.  What  measures  did  they  adopt  a^  this  meet- 
ing ?  They  asserted  their  privileges  as  free  subjects  of  Great 
Britain  ;  the  most  important  of  which  were,  their  exclusive  right 
to  tax  themselves,  and  the  trial  by  jury.     What  further  meas- 

16 


182  DISCONTENT  IN  THE   COLONIES 

ures  did  ths  Congress  resolve  on  ?  They  forwarded  petitiona 
to  the  king  and  parHament,  declaring  that  the  late  acts  of  par- 
liament had  a  tendency  to  subvert  their  rights,  and  praying  for 
redress.  The  other  colonies  also  sent  petitions.  What  act  did 
parliament  pass,  that  further  inflamed  the  minds  of  the  colo- 
nists ?  An  act  was  passed  in  1*767  imposing  duties  on  tea, 
glass,  paper,  and  painters'  colors,  and  the  authority  of  the 
Assembly  of  New  York  suspended  till  they  should  comply 
with  the  requisition  to  quarter  troops,  and  another  appointing  a 
naval  officer  to  enforce  these  acts.  How  did  the  colonists  re- 
ceive these  arbitrary  measures  of  the  British  "i  The  Assembly 
of  Massachusetts  presented  a  petition  to  the  king,  and  requested 
the  other  colonies  to  co-operate  to  seek  redress  for  their  griev- 
ances. How  did  the  British  ministry  receive  these  petitions  ? 
They  were  highly  offended,  and  ordered  Gov.  Bernard  to  re- 
quire the  Assembly  to  rescind  the  vote  by  which  the  circulars 
w^ere  sent  to  the  other  colonies,  and  in  case  of  their  refusal,  to 
dissolve  the  Assembly.  Did  the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts 
comply  with  this  requisition  ?  No  ;  92  out  of  109  refused  to 
comply,  and  the  governor  in  consequence  dissolved  the  Assem- 
bly. Did  this  proceeding  restore  peace  and  quiet  ?  No ;  it 
exasperated  the  people,  and  in  June  the  custom-house  officers 
having  seized  a  sloop  belonging  to  John  Hancock,  they  assem- 
bled and  beat  the  officers,  compelling  them  to  leave  the  town. 
What  further  offensive  measures  did  the  British  ministry  resolve 
on  ?  In  September,  1768,  they  sent  two  regiments  to  Boston, 
who  were  quartered  in  the  State  House,  the  to^vnspeople 
having  refused  to  receive  them.  What  occurred  in  the  follow- 
ing year  ?  The  proceedings  in  Massachusetts  were  declared 
illegal  and  iinconstitutional  by  the  British  parliament,  and  a 
strict  inquiry  was  directed  to  be  made  into  all  treasonable  acts 
committed  since  1767,  in  order  that  the  offenders  might  be  sent 
to  England  for  trial.  How  were  these  declarations  received  in 
Virginia  and  the  other  colonies  ?  The  Virginians  denied  the 
right  of  the  king  to  remove  the  offender  from  the  colony,  and 
voted  an  address  to  the  crown,  which,  though  loyal,  declared 
their  conviction  of  ill-treatment  from  the  British  government ; 
and  the  Assembly  having  been  dissolved  by  the  governor,  they 
met  at  a  private  mansion,  and  passed  non-importation  acts, 
which  were  agreed  to  by  the  other  colonists.  What  occurred 
in  Boston  at  this  time  ?  The  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  con- 
vened, and  expressed  their  belief  that  a  standing  army,  in  a 
time  of  peace,  was  an  invasion  of  their  rights,  and  they  refused 
to  make  any  of  the  appropriations  the  governor  proposed,  and 


THE  CONTINENTAL  CONGRESS.  183 

he  again  prorogued  them.  What  occurred  in  this  city  in  1770  ? 
On  the  fifth  of  March,  some  of  the  inhabitants  insulted  the 
troops  while  under  arms,  and  an  affray  occurred  in  which  three  of 
the  townspeople  were  killed,  and  five  wounded.  What  was  the 
consequence  of  this  affray  ?  Captain  Preston  and  his  soldiers 
were  tried  for  murder,  and  all  save  two  acquitted.  They  had 
for  their  counsel  John  Adams,  and  Josiah  Quincy,  two  of  the 
leading  opposers  of  British  aggression.  What  occurred  in  the 
following  year  ?  Lord  North  being  appointed  to  the  ministry, 
introduced  a  bill  removing  the  taxes  on  every  thing  except 
the  tea,  but  the  colonists  were  dissatisfied  while  the  parhament 
claimed  the  right  of  taxation.  What  were  the  principal  events 
of  the  two  succeeding  years  ?  Meetings  were  held  in  several 
towns,  and  in  17 73,  the  people  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
sent  back  the  tea  ships  to  England.  How  did  the  Bos- 
tonians  behave  at  this  crisis  ?  Being  apprehensive  that  the 
tea  would  be  landed  in  small  quantities,  in  spite  of  their 
opposition,  they  boarded  the  ships  disguised  as  Indians,  and 
threw  their  cargoes  over  the  side,  destroying  in  this  man- 
ner three  hundred  and  forty  chests  of  tea.  How  did  par- 
liament act  on  receiving  an  account  of  these  transactions  ? 
They  passed  a  bill  called  the  "Boston  port  hill,''  shutting  up  the 
ports  of  that  city.  What  effect  had  this  act  on  the  Bostonians 
and  colonists  generally  ?  A  great  number  of  the  former  were 
deprived  of  the  means  of  subsistence,  but  supplies  were  sent  to 
them  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  colonists  were  more 
nrmly  united  than  ever.  What  took  place  in  May,  1774? 
General  Gage,  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Ameri- 
ca, arrived  in  Boston  as  governor  of  Massachusetts ;  and  soon 
after,  two  more  regiments  with  artillery  and  stores  were  landed, 
which  showed  a  determination  on  the  part  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment to  enforce  its  decrees  by  arms.  What  effect  had  these 
proceedings  on  the  Americans  ?  Finding  that  nothing  more  was 
to  be  expected  from  the  kindness  of  Great  Britain,  they  resolved 
tc  defend  themselves,  and  a  plan  for  assembling  a  general 
congress  originating  in  Massachusetts,  was  soon  followed  by 
all  the  colonies  except  Georgia.  When  and  where  did  this 
congress  assemble  ?  On  the  7th  of  September,  1774,  at  Phila- 
delphia, under  the  name  of  the  Continental  Congiess,  and  Peyton 
Randolph,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen  president.  What  did  they 
do  ?  They  published  a  declaration  of  their  riglits,  agreed  to 
suspend  all  commercial  operations  with  Great  Britain,  and  drew 
up  an  address  to  the  king,  another  to  the  people,  and  a  thiid 
to  the  colonists.     When  did  the  first  engagement  take  place 


184  ARRIVAL  OF  BRITISH  TROOPS. 

between  the  British  and  colonists,  and  what  was  the  occasion 
of  it?  On  the  19th  April,  1715,  a  detachment  of  800  troops 
under  Colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  were  ordered  to  take 
possession  of  some  military  stores  at  Concord.  In  passing  through 
Lexington  they  found  some  of  the  mihtia  of  that  town  drawn 
up  imder  arms.  Major  Pitcairn  riding  up,  exclaimed,  "  Disperse, 
you  rebels  !"  Not  being  immediately  obeyed,  he  discharged  his 
pistol  and  ordered  his  men  to  fire,  which  they  did,  killing  eight 
men.  Did  this  affair  end  here  ?  No ;  the  British  having  pro- 
ceeded to  Concord,  and  destroyed  the  stores,  were  attacked  on 
their  return,  and  although  reinforced  by  Lord  Percy  with  900 
men,  were  continually  harassed  by  a  destructive  fire  from  the 
Americans,  who  were  concealed  behind  stone-walls,  hedges,  etc. 
At  last  they  reached  Bunker's  Hill  almost  exhausted,  and  the 
next  morning  entered  Boston  under  cover  of  a  fire  from  a  frigate 
in  the  harbor.  What  was  the  number  of  killed  and  wounded 
in  this  affray  ?  The  British  lost  2*73  men,  the  Americans  only 
84.  How  was  the  news  of  this  engagement  received  by  the 
other  colonies  ?  It  was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising,  troops 
were  enrolled,  and  the  forts  and  arsenals  seized  by  the  Ameri- 
cans. How  many  troops  were  soon  collected  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston  ?  20,000  men  under  Colonel  Putnam ;  and  expeditions 
were  immediately  sent  against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point, 
which  secured  those  important  posts.  Who  commanded  these 
expeditions  ?  Colonels  Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner.  What 
measures  did  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts  take  ? 
They  sent  an  account  of  the  Lexington  affair  to  England, 
proving  that  the  British  troops  were  the  aggressors,  declared  their 
loyalty  to  the  crown,  but  protested  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
British  ministry,  and  added  that  they  were  determined  to  be  free 
or  die.  What  were  the  proceedings  of  the  second  Continental 
Congress  ?  They  assumed  the  appellation  of  the  "  United  Colo- 
nies," and  estabhshed  a  mail-route  from  Maine  to  Georgia, 
Benjamin  Frankhn  being  appointed  Postmaster-general.  What 
occurred  in  May  ?  Large  reinforcements  of  British  troops  ar- 
rived in  Boston,  under  generals  Burgoyne,  Howe,  and  Clinton, 
officers  of  high  reputation,  and  martial  law  was  proclaimed. 
What  offers  did  General  Gage  make  ?  A  full  pardon  for  all 
who  returned  to  their  allegiance,  with  the  exception  of  John 
Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams.  What  was  the  next  step  of  the 
Americans  ?  General  Prescott  with  1,000  men  was  ordered  to 
throw  up  a  breastwork  on  Bunker's  Hill,  on  the  night  of  the 
16th  June,  in  order  to  dislodge  the  British  troops  if  possible. 
How  did  he  succeed  ?     He  had  nearly  completed  it,  when  at 


BATTLE  OF  BUNKER  HILL.  185 

dawn  the  British  perceiving  what  he  was  about,  opened  a  fire 
on  the  work  from  their  ships,  and  at  noon  the  Americans  having 
received  a  reinforcement  of  500  men,  were  attacked  by  3,000 
British  under  General  Howe ;  these  they  twice  repulsed,  but 
their  ammunition  failing,  they  were  obliged  to  retire.  This 
affair  has  received  the  name  of  the  battle  of  "  Bunker's  Hill." 
What  was  the  loss  on  both  sides  ?  The  British  lost  1,054,  the 
Americans  453,  among  whom  was  the  gallant  Major-general 
Warren ;  the  town  of  Charlestown,  consisting  of  400  houses,  was 
also  wantonly  burnt  by  the  British  soldiery.  What  further 
measures  did  Congress  adopt  ?  They  drew  up  a  second  peti- 
tion to  the  king,  and  addresses  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain 
and  Canada,  stating  their  reasons  for  taking  up  arms ;  they  also 
organized  a  regular  army,  appointirf^  George  Washington  com- 
mander-in-chief. Whom  did  they  appoint  major-generals  at  the 
same  time  ?  Artemas  Ward,  of  Massachusetts,  Colonel  Lee, 
formerly  a  British  officer,  Philip  Schuyler,  of  New  York,  Israel 
Putnam,  of  Connecticut;  and  Horatio  Gates  was  appointed 
adjutant-general.  What  expedition  was  resolved  on  by  the 
Americans  ?  The  invasion  of  Canada ;  and  two  forces  were 
accordingly  sent,  one  under  generals  Schuyler  and  Montgomery, 
by  the  way  of  Champlain,  another  by  the  river  Kennebec, 
under  Arnold.  How  did  this  expedition  succeed  ?  General 
Schuyler,  from  illness,  was  unable  to  proceed,  and  the  command 
devolved  on  Montgomery,  who  took  Fort  Chamblee  and  St. 
Johns,  then  Montreal  surrendered,  and  proceeding  to  Quebec, 
he  was  joined  by  Arnold  with  1,000  men.  How  did  the  siege 
of  Quebec  terminate  ?  Having  in  vain  attacked  the  city,  the 
Americans  were  obliged  to  retire;  General  Montgomery  was 
killed,  with  400  of  the  troops,  and  early  in  the  next  season  the 
Americans  evacuated  Canada.  What  took  place  in  Virginia  at 
this  period  ?  The  hasty  measures  of  their  governor.  Lord*  Dun- 
more,  roused  the  Virginians  to  more  determined  opposition,  and 
advanced  the  cause  which  he  wished  to  overthrow,  and  at  last 
he  and  his  family  were  forced  to  take  refuge  on  board  a  man-of- 
war.  What  steps  did  he  take  to  revenge  himself  on  the  colo- 
nists ?  He  carried  on  a  predatory  warfare,  by  landing  troops 
from  the  ships  to  ravage  the  country,  and  reduced  the  town  of 
Norfolk  to  ashes,  but  was  ultimately  compelled  to  leave  the 
American  coast.  How  did  affairs  stand  between  the  British  and 
colonists  at  the  close  of  the  year  1775.?  The  Americans  gen- 
erally were  successful,  all  tlie  royal  governors  were  expelled 
from  the  colonies,  and  Boston  was  closely  invested  by  the 
American  miUtia;  Congress  fitted  out  13  ships,  and  Massachusetts 

16* 


186  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPEXDENCE. 

granted  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal.  What  were  the  firs! 
important  steps  taken  in  1776  ?  Washington,  who  had  con« 
tinued  the  blockade  of  Boston  during  the  winter,  resolved  upon 
erecting  a  battery  on  "  Dorchester  Heights"  for  the  purpose  of 
annoying  the  British,  whom  he  resolved  to  expel.  How  did  he 
succeed  ?  On  the  night  of  the  4th  of  March,  a  redoubt  was 
constructed,  which  menaced  the  British  shipping  with  destruc- 
tion, and  General  Howe  perceiving  in  the  morning  the  advantage 
the  Americans  had  gained,  saw  no  alternative  but  to  dislodge 
them,  or  evacuate  the  place.  How  did  the  British  soldiery 
succeed  in  their  attempt  to  reduce  the  battery  ?  A  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  prevented  the  attack  until  too  late,  and  ac- 
cordingly, on  the  l7th  of  March,  the  British  were  compelled  to 
evacuate  Boston,  and  Washington  entered  in  triumph.  How 
was  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  received  in  England. 
With  the  greatest  astonishment,  proving  as  it  did,  that  the 
Americans  were  more  formidable  than  they  had  supposed. 
What  measures  did  they  take  to  subdue  the  colonies  effectually  ? 
They  took  into  their  pay  16,000  Germans,  and  sent  over  in 
addition  25,000  British  troops,  and  authorized  the  capture  of 
American  vessels  wherever  they  should  be  found.  What  fur- 
ther steps  did  the  British  take  ?  They  sent  Sir  Peter  Parker 
with  a  large  fleet  to  reduce  the  southern  colonies ;  for  which 
purpose  he  sailed  in  June,  and  soon  arrived  at  Charleston,  which 
he  tried  to  take  possession  of.  How  did  he  succeed  ?  Having 
attacked  a  fort  on  Sullivan's  Island,  which  commanded  the 
entrance  to  Charleston,  the  British  were  repulsed  with  con- 
siderable loss  by  the  400  Americans  under  Colonel  Moultrie, 
who  defended  it,  and  soon  after  the  fleet  sailed  for  New  York, 
where  the  British  forces  were  ordered  to  assemble.  What 
motion  was  made  in  Congress  on  the  7th  of  June,  1776  ? 
Richard  Henry  Lee  (a  Virginian)  made  a  motion  for  declaring 
the  colon'.es  free  and  independent  states.  How  was  it  acted  upon? 
A  committee,  consisting  of  Adams,  Jefferson,  Franklin,  Sher- 
man, and  Livingston,  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  When  was  this  signed  ?  On  the  4th 
of  July,  1776.  Who  is  said  to  have  contributed  very  much  to 
bring  about  this  declaration  ?  Thomas  Paine,  author  ot  a 
pamphlet  called  "  Common  Sense."  What  force  had  the  British 
now  collected  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  ?  An  army  of 
nearly  35,000  excellent  troops  under  Sir  William  Howe,  and  a 
fleet  under  his  brother  Lord  Howe.  What  was  the  American 
force  ?  About  17,000  men,  but  very  inferior  in  point  of  arms 
and  equipments.     What  did  the  British  commanders  determine 


BATTLE  OF  BROOKLYN.  187 

on  ?  The  capture  of  New  York ;  but  previous  to  the  attack 
Lord  Howe  wrote  a  letter  to  "  George  Washington,  Esq.,"  offer- 
ing terms  of  accommodation  to  the  Americans.  "What  was 
"Washington's  dignified  behavior  on  this  occasion  ?  He  returned 
the  letter  unopened,  saying,  that  it  did  not  express  his  public 
character,  and  that  as  a  private  individual  he  had  no  right  to 
receive  any  communications  from  an  agent  of  the  king.  What 
offers  were  made  by  the  British  ?  Pardon  to  all  for  past  offences  ; 
but  Washington  replied,  they  had  committed  no  offences,  and 
therefore  did  not  require  any  pardon  ;  they  were  in  arms  to  de- 
fend their  rights.  Give  some  account  of  the  battle  of  Brook- 
lyn. The  British  having  landed  their  army  on  Long  Island, 
attacked  the  Americans,  who  were  commanded  Dy  generals 
Putnam  and  SulUvan,  on  the  27th  of  August ;  the  Americans, 
taken  unawares,  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  1,500  men;  and 
three  of  their  generals,  Sullivan,  Lord  Stirling,  and  Woodhull, 
were  taken  prisoners.  Washington  with  the  remainder  of  the 
army  withdrew  to  White  Plains.  What  were  the  effects  of  this 
battle  ?  The  British  took  possession  of  New  York  :  Long  Island 
and  Staten  Island  also  fell  into  their  hands.  Who  was  Captain 
Hale,  and  what  was  his  fate  ?  He  was  an  American  officer  of 
great  promise,  from  Connecticut,  and  having  volunteered  for  the 
dangerous  service  of  a  spy,  he  was  taken  by  the  British  and  exe- 
cuted. What  was  the  state  of  American  affairs  in  the  winter  of 
1776?  Most  gloomy;  in  addition  to  the  severe  defeat  at 
Brooklyn,  the  British  had  seized  upon  Rhode  Island,  and 
General  Lee  was  taken  prisoner  at  Baskenridge  ;  the  American 
army  on  the  Delaware  was  reduced  to  about  3,000  men,  and 
insufficiently  equipped.  What  bold  enterprise  did  Washington 
resolve  upon  at  this  period  to  revive  the  drooping  spirits  of  the 
Americans  ?  On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December,  1776,  he 
crossed  the  Delaware,  attacked  the  enemy  at  Trenton,  and  took 
their  whole  force  prisoners,  consisting  of  1,000  Hessians;  their 
leader,  Colonel  Rahl,  was  slain.  How  was  this  successful  attempt 
followed  up  ?  Washington  hearing  of  the  approach  of  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  marched  to  Princeton,  and  on  the  3d  of  January,  1777, 
defeated  a  party  of  British  troops  and  forced  300  to  surrender. 
What  effect  had  these  victories  on  the  contending  armies?  The 
Americans  were  animated  to  further  efforts,  although  General 
Mercer  and  several  other  officers  had  been  killed  in  these 
battles ;  the  English,  on  the  contrary,  were  alarmed  and  dis- 
pirited. What  measures  had  Congress  taken  for  prosecuting 
the  war  ?  They  invested  Washington  with  unlimited  powers, 
raised  an  army  for  three  years,  or  during  the  war,  and  sent 


188  BATTLE  OF  THE  BRANDY  WINE 

agents  to  Europe  to  solicit  assistance.  Who  were  tlie  agents 
sent  to  France  ?  Silas  Deane  and  Arthur  Lee.  What  was 
the  result  of  this  mission  to  France  ?  Several  individuals  era- 
barked  in  the  American  cause ;  among  these  was  the  young 
Marquis  de  La  Fayette,  whose  arrival  was  hailed  with  joy  by  the 
people,  and  Congress  appointed  him  a  Major-general  in  the 
army ;  but  although  the  French  government  wished  success  to 
the  Americans,  they  were  afraid  openly  to  acknowledge  it. 
What  proceedings  did  Gen.  Howe  adopt  in  the  spring  of  17Y7  ? 
He  sent  a  detachment  up  the  Hudson  to  destroy  some  stores  at 
Peekskill,  and  in  April,  another  force  of  2,000  men  under  Gen. 
Tryon  to  Danbury,  in  Connecticut,  who  destroyed  the  stores, 
and  burnt  the  town  ;  some  skirmishes  took  place,  in  which  the 
American  general,  Wooster,  was  killed.  What  was  the  number 
of  the  American  army  in  the  spring  of  1*777  ?  It  consisted  of 
7,000  men.  What  steps  did  Gen.  Howe  take  on  finding  his 
efforts  to  draw  the  Americans  into  a  general  engagement  fail  ? 
He  retired  from  New  Jersey  to  Staten  Island,  and  afterwards 
embarked  with  16,000  men,  entered  the  Chesapeake,  and  landed 
at  the  head  of  Elk  river.  What  was  Howe's  object  in  this  pro- 
ceeding, and  what  measures  did  Washington  take  to  prevent  its 
completion  ?  Gen.  Howe  intended  to  capture  Philadelphia,  and 
Washington,  with  generals  Greene,  Sullivan,  Wayne,  and  Stir- 
ling, marched  to  oppose  him.  What  was  the  result  of  this 
raanoeu\Te  ?  On  the  11th  of  September  a  battle  was  fought  on 
the  Brandywine,  in  which  the  Americans  were  obliged  to  yield 
to  the  superior  force  of  the  British,  with  a  loss  of  nearly  1,000 
men  in  killed  and  wounded  ;  among  the  latter  was  the  young 
La  Fayette.  What  were  the  immediate  consequences  of  this 
battle  ?  Gen.  Howe  took  possession  of  Philadelphia,  and  deem- 
ing it  necessary  to  open  a  communication  with  the  Atlantic, 
attacked  the  forts  on  the  Delaware,  and  after  being  repulsed 
once  or  twice,  effected  their  capture,  but  with  a  loss  of  300  men. 
What  were  Washington's  movements  while  the  British  troops 
were  absent  on  this  service  ?  He  attacked  Germantown  on  the 
4th  of  October,  l^ut  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  1,200  men  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners ;  the  British  loss  was  comparatively 
trifling.  What  important  events  were  taking  place  in  the  north 
during  these  proceedings  in  the  middle  states?  The  British 
determined  to  invade  the  states  through  Canada,  and  in  June 
an  army  of  7,000  men,  besides  Canadians  and  Indians,  command- 
ed by  Gen.  Burgoyne,  passed  up  Lake  Champlain  and  attacked 
Ticonderoga,  which  was  abandoned  by  the  Americans  under 
S    Clair.     Give  some  further  particulars  of  Burgoyne's  move- 


SURRENDER  OF  BURGOYNE.  189 

ments.  Having  proceeded  to  Skeensborougb,  (now  Whitehall,) 
he  destroyed  the  American  flotilla  and  stores  there,  and  from 
thence  led  his  army  to  Fort  Edward  on  the  Hudson.  What  ex- 
pedition did  he  send  out  while  remaining  here  ?  A  detachment 
of  500  English  and  100  Indians  under  Colonel  Baum,  to  destroy 
the  stores  at  Bennington,  in  Vermont.  What  was  the  result  of 
this  expedition  ?  They  were  defeated  by  Gen.  Stark  with  800 
militia  from  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  on  the  16  th  of 
August,  and  the  next  day  a  reinforcement  of  500  Germans  un- 
der Colonel  Breyman  was  also  defeated  by  Stark.  What  was 
the  number  of  killed  and  wounded  on  the  part  of  the  British  ? 
About  600  men  ;  but  a  few  days  previous  the  American  general, 
Herkimer,  was  defeated  by  Colonel  St.  Leger  with  coiisiderable 
loss.  What  were  the  final  proceedings  of  Burgoyne  ?  Having 
crossed  the  Hudson  and  encamped  at  Saratoga,  he  was  attacked 
on  the  l7th  of  September  by  Gen.  Gates  at  Stillwater :  both  sides 
claimed  the  victory,  but  the  Americans  had  the  advantage,  and 
on  the  lib.  of  October  the  battle  of  Saratoga  was  fought.  What 
was  the  result  of  these  battles  ?  On  the  l7th  of  October,  the 
British  army,  amounting  to  5,752  men,  exclusive  of  sick  and 
wounded,  surrendered  to  Gen.  Gates  at  Saratoga,  as  prisoners 
of  war.  What  effect  had  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  on  the 
British,  Americans,  and  French  ?  The  British  were  much 
alarmed,  while  the  Americans  were  inspired  with  fresh  hopes 
of  success;  and  the  French,  in  February,  1778,  decided  the 
negotiation  that  was  set  on  foot  in  1776,  by  signing  treaties  of 
alliance,  amity,  and  commerce  with  the  Americans.  What 
steps  did  the  British  ministry  take  on  receiving  intelligence  of 
these  treaties  ?  They  resolved  to  conciliate  America,  and  com- 
missioners arrived  in  June  bringing  proposals  for  accommoda- 
tion. How  were  these  propositions  received  by  the  Americans  ? 
Congress  refused  to  listen  to  any  terms  short  of  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  independence,  although  the  English  might  have  effected 
their  object  a  few  years  before  had  they  proposed  the  same  terms 
they  were  now  willing  to  make.  What  change  took  place  in 
the  British  army  in  1778  ?  Gen.  Howe  returned  to  England, 
and  Gen.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  royal  forces  in  America.  What  did  the  British  com- 
mander resolve  on  doing  ?  He  evacuated  Philadelphia  on  the 
18th  of  June,  intending  to  concentrate  his  forces  at  New  York. 
How  did  he  succeed  in  this  measure,  and  what  steps  did 
Washington  take  to  interrupt  their  advance  ?  Gen.  Washington 
Immediately  put  his  troops  in  motion  and  followed  the  British 
army  to  Momnouth,  where  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the 


190  ARRIVAL  OF  A  FRENCH  FLEET. 

Americans  had  the  advantage ;  but  night  suspending  the  conflict, 
Clinton  silently  decamped,  and  succeeded  in  reaching  New 
York,  where  he  remained  inactive  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
summer.  What  eflforts  did  the  French  make  at  this  period 
to  assist  the  Americans  ?  They  sent  a  fleet  of  twelve  ships 
of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  under  the  command  of  Count 
d'Estaing  they  arrived  at  the  entrance  of  the  Delaware  in 
July,  and  shortly  afterwards  attacked  the  British  troops  at 
Newport,  but  were  repulsed.  What  took  place  on  Rhode 
Island  between  the  British  and  American  troops  ?  On  the 
20th  of  August  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  both  armies  lost 
about  200  men ;  the  British  were  commanded  by  Gen.  Pigot, 
the  Americans  by  Gen.  Sullivan :  on  the  succeeding  morning 
the  Americans  left  the  Island.  Give  some  account  of  the  close 
of  this  campaign.  The  French  fleet  sailed  to  the  West  Indies 
without  having  accomplished  any  thing  of  importance.  The 
British  sent  an  expedition  to  Georgia,  and  on  the  29th  of  De- 
cember, Savannah  was  taken  from  the  Americans.  Where  was 
the  war  principally  carried  on  in  the  beginning  of  1*779  ?  In 
the  south,  but  nothing  of  great  importance  occurred  there  ;  and 
at  this  time  the  exertions  of  the  Americans  were  enfeebled  from 
the  depreciation  of  their  bills  of  credit.  What  expeditions  were 
sent  out  by  the  British  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  ?  One 
under  Sir  George  Collier  and  Gen.  Matthews,  to  Virginia,  and 
another  under  Gen.  Tryon,  against  the  maritime  ports  of  Con- 
necticut. How  did  they  succeed  ?  That  against  Virginia  landed 
at  Portsmouth,  and  destroyed  the  shipping  and  valuable  stores 
there,  while  the  other,  under  Gen.  Tryon,  plundered ^New  Haven, 
and  burnt  Fairfield  and  Norwalk.  What  expeditions  were  sent 
forth  by  the  Americans  in  the  middle  of  the  season  V  Three  ; 
the  first  against  Stony  Point,  an  eminence  on  the  Hudson, 
which  had  been  taken  and  fortified  by  the  British ;  but  the 
Americans  under  Gen.  Wayne  compelled  the  garrison  to  sur- 
render. What  were  the  second  and  third  expeditions  directed 
against  ?  A  British  port  at  Penobscot,  and  the  invasion  of  the 
country  of  the  Six  Nations ;  the  first,  commanded  by  General 
Lovell,  was  unsuccessful,  but  the  other,  under  Gen.  Sullivan, 
ravaged  the  Indian  villages  and  destroyed  their  corn  and  fruit- 
a-ees.  What  w^as  the  cause  of  this  expedition  against  the 
Indians  ?  The  recent  enormities  they  had  committed  in  con- 
junction with  the  royalists  ;  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  were 
the  massacre  of  Wyoming,  and  that  of  Cherry  Valley.  Who 
were  the  leaders  of  this  party  ?  Johnson,  Butler,  and  Brandt. 
Who  held  the  chief  command  of  the  American  army  during  this 


BOMBARDMENT  OF  SAVANNAH.  191 

campaign  in  the  south  ?  Oen.  Lincoln  ;  he  sent  a  detachment 
of  1,500  men  under  Gen.  Ash  to  cross  the  Savannah  and  take 
a  station  on  Briar  Creek,  but  he  was  surprised  and  defeated  by 
the  British  under  Gen.  Provost,  on  the  3d  of  March.  What 
were  Provost's  movements  after  this  affair  ?  He  invested,  and 
attempted  to  take  Charleston,  but  was  repulsed,  and  on  the 
approach  of  Gen.  Lincoln  retired  with  the  main  army  to  Sa- 
vannah. What  measures  were  concerted  between  the  Ameri- 
cans and  the  French  ?  The  bombardment  of  Savannah,  which 
they  invested  in  September ;  and  on  the  9th  of  October  they 
made  an  assault,  and  were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss. 
What  was  the  amount  of  the  killed  and  wounded  of  the  allies  ? 
The  French  lost  '700,  the  Americans  400 ;  the  Count  d'Estaing 
was  wounded,  and  Count  Pulaski  killed.  On  the  18th  of  Oc- 
tober the  siege  was  raised,  and  the  French  fleet  set  sail  for 
Europe.  What  great  sea-fight  occurred  at  the  close  of  this 
year  ?  That  between  the  celebrated  Paul  Jones,  with  a  flotilla 
of  five  vessels,  and  Captain  Pearson  of  the  frigate  Serapis. 
What  was  the  result  of  this  engagement  ?  The  Americans  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  the  English  vessel,  after  a  bloody  battle 
which  lasted  several  hours  :  tliis  engagement  took  place  off"  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  and  is  one  of  the  most  desperate  on  record. 
Where  were  the  principal  operations  of  the  war  carried  on  in  the 
succeeding  year  of  1V80  ?  In  South  Carolina :  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton having  arrived  at  Savannah  from  New  York,  proceeded  to 
Charleston,  and  laid  siege  to  that  city  in  April.  What  was 
the  result  of  this  siege  ?  Gen.  Clinton  being  unable  to  continue 
the  defence,  capitulated  on  the  I7th  of  May,  the  garrison  and 
male  inhabitants  of  the  city  surrendering  as  prisoners  of  war. 
Did  Sir  Henry  Clinton  continue  to  command  the  army  in 
South  Carolina  ?  jN"o  ;  leaving  4,000  men  under  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  he  returned  to  New  York :  a  proclamation  was  issued 
inviting  the  Carohnians  to  join  the  British,  and  was  partly  suc- 
cessful. What  measures  were  taken  by  the  British  to  secure 
the  interior  of  the  country  ?  A  large  force  under  Lord  Raw- 
don  was  sent  to  Camden :  several  skirmishes  took  place,  in  one 
of  which  the  American  general,  Burford,  was  defeated  by  the 
Britisli  under  Col.  Tarleton  ;  in  others,  Sumter,  also  an  Ameri- 
can, was  highly  distinguished.  Who  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  American  forces  in  the  south  in  the  place  of 
Gen.  Lincoln  ?  Gen.  Gates,  who  arrived  at  the  American  camp 
in  July,  and  collected  troops  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the 
British.  What  was  the  eff"ect  of  this  movement  on  Lord  Corn- 
wallis?     He  repaired  to  Camden  to  reinforce  Lord  Rawdon, 


192  THE  TREACHERY  OF  ARNOLD. 

and  on  the  16tli  of  August  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  nearly  2,000  men,  in- 
cluding Gen.  Gregory  and  Baron  de  Kalb.  What  were  the 
consequences  of  this  battle  ?  Gen.  Gates  was  obliged  to  retreat 
to  Hillsborough,  in  North  Carolina,  and  Sumter  was  pursued 
and  defeated  by  Col.  Tarleton.  What  further  assistance  did 
the  French  render  to  the  Americans  ?  In  July,  M.  de  Ternay, 
with  a  fleet  of  seven  ships  of  the  line  and  several  frigates,  and 
a  force  of  6,000  troops  under  Count  de  Rochambeau,  arrived  at 
Rhode  Island  ;  the  fleet  returned,  but  the  land  forces  remained, 
and  co-operated  in  the  final  reduction  of  the  British  army. 
What  flagrant  act  of  treachery  occurred  in  this  year  ?  The  plot 
of  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold  to  deUver  West  Point  into  the  hands 
of  the  British.  What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  Arnold's 
treachery  ?  His  extravagance,  together  with  a  determination 
to  be  revenged  for  having  been  reprimanded  by  Gen.  Washing- 
ton. How  did  the  plot  succeed  ?  It  was  discovered  on  the 
eve  of  success  by  the  capture  of  the  British  agent  in  the  trans- 
action. Major  Andre,  an  amiable  and  heroic  officer.  How  was 
Andre  captured  ?  He  was  seized  just  as  he  was  leaving  the 
American  lines  by  three  soldiers,  named  John  Paulding,*  Isaac 
Van  Wert,  and  David  Williams,  who,  although  tempted  by  a 
large  bribe,  refused  to  let  him  go.  What  was  Andre's  fate  ? 
Being  taken  as  a  spy,  his  life  was  forfeited  by  the  laws  of  war, 
and  he  was  executed,  much  to  the  regret  of  both  English  and 
Americans.  What  was  the  further  history  of  Arnold  ?  He 
escaped  to  a  British  man-of-war,  and  received  as  the  reward  of 
his  treachery  £10,000  and  the  rank  of  Brigadier-general  in  the 
British  army ;  but  though  rewarded,  he  was  despised.  What 
occurred  in  the  autumn  of  1Y80?  Gen.  Greene  Avas  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  the  south,  and  shortly  after 
the  battle  of  the  Cow  Pens  was  fought,  between  the  Americans 
under  Col.  Morgan  and  the  British  under  Col.  Tarleton,  in  which 
the  latter  were  defeated  with"  great  loss,  while  that  of  the 
Americans  was  trifling.  Give  some  account  of  the  campaign  of 
1781.  It  was  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  south;  Gen.  Arnold 
made  a  descent  on  Virginia,  and  committed  great  depredations 
on  the  unprotected  coast.  Give  some  account  of  the  proceed- 
ings in  North  Carolina.  The  opposing  armies  under  Greene 
and  Cornwallis  met  near  Guilford  courthouse,  and  on  the  15th 
of  March  an  engagement  took  place,  in  which  the  Americans 
were  defeated,  although  the  British  lost  400  men.    What  steps 

•  Grandfather  of  the  celebrated  author  of  that  name 


SURRENDER  OF  THE  BRIIISII  AT  YORKTOWN.  193 

did  Gen.  Greene  take  after  the  loss  of  this  battle  ?  He  marched 
to  Camden,  where  he  was  attacked  and  defeated  by  Lord  Raw- 
don  with  900  men.  What  were  the  effects  of  this  battle  on 
the  British  ?  Rawdon  had  sustained  such  severe  losses  that 
he  became  apprehensive  lest  the  surrounding  inhabitants,  who 
were  rising  in  all  directions,  should  attack  and  destroy  the 
post;  he  therefore  on  the  10th  of  May  evacuated  Camden 
and  retreated  to  Charleston.  Whom  did  the  British  appoint 
to  the  command  of  their  army  in  August  ?  Colonel  Stuart, 
who,  being  attacked  by  General  Greene,  fell  back  upon  Eu- 
taw  Springs,  where  he  was  attacked  and  defeated,  with  a  loss  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoners,  of  1,000  men,  while  the 
American  loss  was  only  600.  How  did  Lord  Cornwallis  pro- 
ceed after  the  battle  of  Guilford  ?  He  marched  towards 
Virginia,  and  arriving  at  Petersburg  in  May,  took  command  of 
the  united  forces  there,  and  then  fortified  himself  at  Yorktown 
in  the  best  manner  he  was  able.  What  plan  of  combined 
operations  had  been  concerted  by  Generals  Washington,  Knox, 
tnd  Rochambeau  ?  To  invest  the  British  army  at  Yorktown, 
(vhile  Washington,  giving  out  that  New  York  was  the  destined 
point  of  attack,  deceived  and  baffled  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  How 
did  this  measure  succeed  ?  Washington  having  crossed  the 
Hudson  and  passed  rapidly  through  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, effected  a  junction  with  Lafayette  at  Elk  river,  whence 
he  despatched  his  forces  for  Virginia,  Sir  Henry  being  unaware 
of  his  manoeuvre  till  it  was  too  late  to  pursue  him.  What  gave 
further  confidence  to  the  Americans  ?  The  arrival  of  24 
French  ships  of  the  line  under  Count  de  Grasse,  from  which  a 
large  body  of  troops  was  landed,  and  the  combined  army  to 
the  number  of  16,000  invested  Yorktown.  Give  some  account 
of  the  siege.  The  Americans  opened  their  batteries  upon  the 
enemy  early  in  October;  by  the  11th  they  had  silenced  the 
British  fire,  and  on  the  17  th  Lord  Cornwallis  proposed  a  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities.  How  was  it  received?  On  the  i9th  the 
capitulation  was  signed,  by  which  the  British  stores  and  army 
to  the  number  of  7,073  men  were  surrendered  to  Washington. 
How  was  the  success  of  this  expedition  received  ?  It  was 
looked  upon  as  deciding  the  war,  and  securing  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  ;  divine  service  was  performed  throughout 
the  whole  army,  and  a  day  of  thanksgiving  set  apart  by  Con- 
gress and  observed  in  all  the  states  :  Gen.  Washington  also 
liberated  all  those  who  were  under  arrest  for  their  offences. 
What  occurred  in  1782  ?  In  March,  Lord  North  resigned,  and 
a  new  cabinet  was  formed,  who  advised  the  king  to  discontinue 

17 


194  WASHINGTON  RESIGNS  HIS  COMMISSION 

the  war.  What  took  place  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  ?  Qea 
Carleton  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  British  forces 
in  America,  and  on  the  30th  of  November  provisional  articles 
of  peace  were  signed,  by  which  the  Independence  of  the  United 
States  was  acknowledged.  What  were  some  of  the  events  of 
1783  ?  The  recognition  of  American  Independence  by  Great 
Britain,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Spain,  and  Russia ;  and  on  the  2oth 
of  November  the  British  troops  evacuated  New  York.  When 
was  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  between  Great 
Britain  and  America  ?  On  the  3d  of  September,  1*783,  at  Ver- 
sailles, by  Adams,  Franklin,  Jay,  and  Laurens,  on  the  part 
of  the  Americans,  and  Oswald,  on  the  part  of  the  British. 
What  difl5culties  arose  when  the  American  army  was  about  to 
be  disbanded  ?  The  want  of  money  rendered  the  payment  of 
their  arrears  very  difficult.  Congress  had  been  driven  to  the 
expedient  of  emitting  bills  of  credit,  and  the  depreciated  cur- 
rency deprived  the  soldiers  of  their  due.  How  did  the  officers 
generally  act  under  these  circumstances  ?  They  kept  quiet  till 
the  close  of  the  war,  but  then  great  excitement  prevailed,  and 
the  army  at  Newbury  was  agitated  by  an  address,  privately 
circulated,  advising  them  to  take  violent  measures.  How  did 
Washington  behave  at  this  crisis  ?  He  assembled  the  officers, 
and  exhorted  them  to  moderation  in  demanding  their  arrears, 
assuring  them,  that  he  would  exert  himself  to  the  utmost  in 
securing  the  payment  of  their  just  demands,  and  begged  them 
not  to  listen  to  those  who  would  sow  discord  between  them 
and  their  representatives.  How  was  this  advice  received  by 
the  officers  ?  They  voted  Washington  an  address  of  thanks, 
and  resolved  to  have  unshaken  confidence  in  the  justice  of  Con- 
gress. How  did  Congress  act  with  regard  to  the  settlement  of 
these  claims  ?  They  put  the  army  account  in  train  to  be  set- 
tled, and  decreed  that  the  officers  should  receive  after  the  close 
of  the  war  five  years'  additional  pay,  and  each  soldier  $80,  in 
addition  to  his  wages.  What  day  was  fixed  on  for  disbanding 
the  troops  ?  The  3d  of  November,  on  the  day  before  which, 
Washington  delivered  his  farewell  address  to  the  troops,  and 
took  leave  of  his  officers.  What  was  Washington's  after  con- 
duct ?  He  repaired  to  Annapolis,  where  Congress  was  sitting, 
delivered  to  the  president  his  military  commission,  and  then 
retired  to  his  farm  at  Mount  Vernon.  What  was  the  state  of 
the  government  at  this  period  ?  It  was  found  to  be  so  weak 
and  inefficient,  that  commissioners  were  appointed  to  meet  at 
Annapolis,  in  1786,  to  form  a  general  system  of  commercial 
regulations.     What  did  these  commissioners   do?      Finding 


"WASHINGTON  CHOSEN  PRESIDENT.  195 

their  powers  insufficient  to  eflFect  any  thing  of  importance,  they 
advised  the  states  to  elect  delegates  with  ampler  powers  to  meet 
at  Philadelphia,  which  was  done  in  May,  1787.  What  did 
these  new  delegates  do  ?  Having  appointed  Washington  their 
president,  they,  after  four  months'  deliberation,  formed  the 
Federal  Constitution,  which  was  presented  to  Congress  and 
transmitted  by  that  body  to  the  severax  states  for  their  ap- 
proval. Was  this  form  of  government  accepted  by  the  states  ? 
Yes ;  it  was  accepted  and  ratified  by  all  the  states  except 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1788  became  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  When  did  the  two  dis- 
senting states  adopt  it?  North  Carolina  in  1789,  Rhode 
Island  in  1790;  by  this  constitution  the  several  states  sent 
delegates  to  Congress.  Who  was  chosen  the  first  President  ? 
George  Washington,  who,  although  averse  to  entering  on  public 
affairs  again,  yielded  to  the  unanimous  voice  of  his  country,  and 
proceeded  to  New  York,  where  Congress  was  then  assembled, 
where  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  by  all 
classes.  When  was  he  inaugurated  ?  On  the  30tli  of  April, 
1789.  How  was  this  government  and  president  received  by 
the  people  generally  ?  With  unbounded  joy ;  its  beneficial 
effects  were  soon  felt,  public  confidence  was  restored,  commerce 
revived,  and  the  national  debt  was  funded  and  brought  at 
once  to  its  par  value.  Who  was  chosen  Vice-President  ?  John 
Adams,  who  had  borne  a  distinguished  part  in  the  revolution 
Name  the  other  principal  officers,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Secretary 
of  State  ;  Alexander  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury ;  Henry 
Knox,  Secretary  of  War ;  Edmund  Randolph,  Attorney-Gen- 
eral ;  and  John  Jay,  Chief-Justice.  In  what  war  were  the 
United  States  involved  in  1790  ?  A  war  with  the  Indian  tribes 
north  of  the  Ohio  :  they  obtained  a  victory  over  Gen.  Harmer, 
and  in  1791  another  over  St.  Clair;  but  Gen.  Wayne,  who 
succeeded  him,  completely  defeated  them,  and  negotiated  a 
treaty  of  peace  at  Greenville,  in  1795.  What  other  difficulties 
were  the  states  involved  in,  at  this  period  ?  The  French  revo- 
lution had  commenced,  and  that  nation,  under  the  rule  of  the 
Directory,  claimed  assistance  from  America ;  but  Washington 
was  disposed  to  remain  neutral,  although  a  large  portion  of  the 
community  would  have  urged  the  nation  into  hostilities  with 
England.  What  efiect  had  Washington's  resolution  of  pre- 
serving a  strict  neutrality  on  the  difierent  parties  in  the  states  ? 
The  country  was  already  divided  between  opposing  parties, 
and  this  neutral  policy  widened  the  breach.  Who  was  Wash- 
ington's successor  as  president  ?     This  great  man  having  de- 


196  DEATH  OF  WASJlliNG'ItfN. 

clined  a  re-election  was  succeeded  by  John  Adams,  in  1797 
What  means  did  France  take  to  revenge  herself  on  the  Ameri- 
cans,  for  refusing  to  assist  her  ?  They  began  a  course  of  insult 
and  aggression,  that  ended  in  open  hostilities ;  the  Americans 
adopted  means  of  defence,  increased  their  navy  and  army, 
appointing  General  Washington  commander-in-chief.  How  did 
these  disputes  terminate  ?  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  months, 
the  Directory  government  of  France  was  overthrown,  and  the 
hostiUties  between  the  countries  were  amicably  settled.  In 
what  year  did  Washington  die?  In  1799,  on  the  14th  of 
December,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age.  What  effect  had  the 
news  of  his  death  on  the  people  ?  It  produced  an  impression 
^;hat  is  without  a  parallel  in  America ;  the  people,  in  accordance 
;vith  the  recommendation  of  Congress,  wore  crape  on  the  left 
irm  thirty  days,  as  a  token  of  grief ;  eulogies  were  delivered,  and 
funeral  processions  celebrated  throughout  the  country,  for  the 
loss  of  one  whom  they  had  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  the 
"  father  of  his  country."  By  what  names  were  the  two  parties 
designated  at  this  time  ?  Those  in  favor  of  the  Constitution 
were  styled  FederaUsts  ;  the  others.  Democrats,  or  Republi- 
cans :  they  differed  on  various  subjects,  both  with  regard  to 
the  foreign  and  domestic  policy.  What  act  of  the  federalist 
party  was  severely  censured  by  the  republicans  ?  A  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Great  Britain,  negotiated  by  Mr.  Jay  in 
1794.  What  acts  were  passed  during  Mr.  Adams'  adminis- 
tration, that  excited  dissatisfaction  ?  Raising  a  standing  army, 
imposing  a  direct  tax,  and  enacting  the  alien  and  sedition  laws. 
What  occurred  in  1801  ?  A  change  in  the  administration  :  the 
republican  party  being  in  the  majority,  elected  their  candidate, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  to  the  presidency,  in  opposition  to  Mr. 
Adams.  What  was  the  state  of  the  country  at  the  time  Mr. 
Jeffarson  was  elected  ?  Very  prosperous,  and  continued  so 
dunng  the  first  term  of  his  official  career ;  at  the  expiration  of 
which,  he  was  re-elected  almost  unanimously.  What  effect  had 
the  war  between  Great  Britain  and  France  on  America  ? 
Being  almost  the  only  country  that  was  not  involved  in  this 
war,  she  endeavored  to  preserve  her  neutrality,  in  order  to 
cairy  on  her  commerce  with  them,  but  they  were  inclined  to 
contract  its  limits.  What  occurred  in  May,  1806  ?  The  Britisli 
government  declared  all  the  ports  from  the  Elbe  in  Germany 
to  Brest  in  France,  to  be  blockaded  ;  and  that  all  American 
vessels  trading  with  those  ports,  were  liable  to  seizure  and 
condemnation.  What  occurred  in  the  following  November  1 
The  emperor  of  France  issued  the  Berlin  decreo,  declaring  thfc 


ATTACK  ON  THE  FRIGATE  CHESAPEAKE.  197 

British  islands  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  prohibiting  all  inter- 
course with  them.  What  further  orders  were  issued  by  the 
British  in  November,  1807  ?  The  "  British  orders  in  council," 
by  which  all  neutral  vessels  trading  with  France,  were  com- 
pelled to  stop  at  a  British  port  and  pay  a  duty.  What  decree 
was  issued  by  Bonaparte,  in  consequence  of  this  order  ?  The 
"  Milan  decree,"  by  which  every  vessel  was  confiscated  that 
submitted  to  British  search  and  pecuniary  exactions.  What 
course  did  Congress  adopt  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Jef- 
ferson ?  They  laid  an  embargo  on  all  the  shipping  of  the 
United  States ;  which  was  removed  in  March,  1809,  and  "non- 
intercourse  with  Great  Britain  and  France,"  was  substituted. 
What  new  causes  of  provocation  were  continually  occurring  ? 
The  trade  of  the  United  States  Avas  harassed  by  both  nations,  the 
government  was  accused  by  the  British  of  partiality  for  France, 
and  in  France,  of  submitting  to  the  insults  of  Great  Britain.  Wliat 
provocation  did  America  receive  exclusively  from  the  British*? 
TJie  impressment  of  her  seamen,  whom  they  either  could  not, 
or  loould  not  distinguish  from  Englishmen  ;  and  thus  American 
seamen  were  compelled  to  fight  for  the  British.  What  did  the 
British  complain  of  in  the  Americans  ?  That  they  concealed 
runaway  British  seamen  on  board  American  merchant  vessels  ; 
and  declared  they  had  a  right  to  search  for  them.  To  what 
description  of  vessels  had  this  search  been  confined  hitherto  ? 
To  merchant  vessels;  but  in  1807  the  British  ascertained  that 
four  seamen  had  deserted  from  their  vessels  to  the  Chesapeake, 
an  American  frigate  of  36  guns,  commanded  by  Commodore 
Barron.  What  steps  did  the  British  take  to  recover  these 
seamen  ?  By  the  orders  of  Admiral  Berkeley,  the  Chesapeake 
was  followed  beyond  the  Capes  of  Virginia,  by  the  Leopard,  of 
50  guns.  Captain  Humphreys  commanding,  and  after  in  vain 
demanding  the  deserters,  they  fired  a  broadside  upon  the  Chesa- 
peake, killing  and  wounding  about  20  men.  What  was  the 
result?  The  Chesapeake  struck  her  colors,  and  gave  up  the 
four  seamen ;  but  the  American  government  considered  this 
outrage  a  sufficient  ground  for  declaring  war.  What  proclama- 
tion was  issued  by  the  president?  One  ordering  all  British 
vessels  of  war  to  quit  the  waters  of  the  United  States,  and 
forbidding  all  intercourse  between  them  and  the  inhabitants 
How  did  the  British  government  act  with  regard  to  the  attack 
on  the  Chesapeake  ?  They  disavowed  any  participation  in  it, 
but  took  no  measures  with  regard  to  it  at  all  satisfactory  to  the 
Americans.  Who  succeeded  Thomas  Jefi'erson  as  president? 
James  Madison,  in  1809.     Mr.  Erskine,  the  Biitish  minister, 

17* 


198  INVASION  OF  CANADA. 

made  an  aiTangement  with  the  government  at  the  beginning  of 
this  administration,  which  induced  them  to  renew  their  trade 
with  England,  but  it  was  afterwards  disavowed  by  the  British 
government.  What  served  to  increase  the  angry  feehngs  be- 
tween the  countries  ?  A  rencounter  between  the  ship  of  war 
President,  and  an  Enghsh  ship,  the  Little  Belt.  What  message 
did  the  president  send  to  Congress  on  the  1st  of  June,  1812  ? 
A  message  strongly  recommending  a  declaration  of  war :  the 
principal  grounds  for  it  were,  impressing  the  American  seamen, 
the  orders  in  council,  and  a  suspicion  that  the  Indians  had  been 
instigated  to  hostilities  by  the  British.  What  was  the  result  of 
this  message  ?  The  bill  for  declaring  war  passed  both  houses, 
and  the  next  day  was  signed  by  the  president.  How  was  this 
declaration  of  war  received  by  the  people  ?  With  less  unanimity 
than  the  previous  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  it  was  conse- 
quently prosecuted  with  less  vigor :  five  days  after  this  declara- 
tion had  been  issued,  the  British  orders  in  council  were  repealed, 
in  consequence  of  the  decrees  of  Berlin  and  Milan  having  been 
revoked.  How  were  the  operations  of  the  war  carried  on  by 
the  Americans  ?  Owing  to  their  imperfect  preparations,  they 
were  wholly  unsuccessful  during  the  first  campaign.  What 
occurred  on  the  12th  of  July?  General  Hull  invaded  Canada 
with  2,000  men,  but  on  the  16th  of  August  he  was  compelled 
to  surrender,  with  his  whole  force.  Who  made  a  second  at- 
tempt to  invade  Canada  ?  General  Van  Rensselaer,  who  crossed 
the  Niagara  with  1,000  men  in  November,  and  attacked  the 
British  at  Queenstown :  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  in  which 
the  British  general.  Brock,  was  killed.  Van  Rensselaer  sur- 
rendered, with  all  his  troops.  Did  the  Americans  meet  with 
more  success  in  their  naval  engagements  ?  Yes :  in  August  the 
frigate  Constitution,  Captain  Hull,  captured  the  Britisli  frigate 
Guerriere ;  in  October,  the  United  States,  commanded  by  Cap- 
tain Decatur,  took  the  Macedonian,  an  English  frigate ;  and  in 
November  the  British  sloop  Frolic  was  taken  by  the  Wasp, 
Captain  Jones.  Give  some  further  account  of  the  naval  en- 
gagements. The  Wasp  and  her  prize  was  retaken  by  a  British 
74,  the  Poictiers ;  but  in  December,  the  Constitution,  Captain 
Bainbridge,  captured  the  British  frigate  Java :  in  all  these  en- 
gagements the  total  loss  of  the  British  was  423,  of  the  Ameri- 
cans only  73.  Give  some  account  of  the  war  during  1813. 
In  January  a  detachment  of  800  men,  under  General  Win- 
chester, was  surprised  and  defeated  by  a  party  of  British  and 
Indians  under  General  Proctor,  at  Frenchtown.  What  was  the 
'^ie  of  the  prisoners  ?     They  were  left  by  General  Proctoi 


BATTLE  ON  LAKE  ERIE  199 

without  a  sufficient  guard  to  protect  them  from  the  Indians, 
who  cruelly  murdered  a  great  number  of  them.  What  oc- 
curred in  April  ?  General  Pike,  with  1,Y00  Americans,  took 
possession  of  York,  in  Upper  Canada,  but  by  the  explosion  of 
a  mine,  Pike,  with  about  100  Americans  and  40  British,  was 
killed.  What  happened  to  Colonel  Dudley  about  this  time  ? 
He  was  detached  from  Fort  Meigs  to  take  possession  of  a  British 
battery,  in  which  he  was  partially  successful,  when  he  fell  into 
an  ambuscade  prepared  by  Tecumseh,  and  of  800  men,  only 
150  escaped.  What  occurred  in  May,  1813  ?  1,000  British 
troops  under  Sir  George  Provost  attacked  Sackett's  Harbor, 
but  were  repulsed  by  the  Americans  under  General  Brown. 
What  fort  did  the  Americans  take  from  the  British  ?  Fort 
George,  in  Canada,  which  was  defended  by  General  Vincent : 
the  Americans  were  commanded  by  General  Boyd  and  Colonel 
Miller.  Which  was  the  most  brilliant  victory  of  this  year? 
That  of  Commodore  Perry,  on  Lake  Erie,  on  the  10th  Septem- 
ber. Give  some  account  of  this  engagement.  The  British 
fleet,  under  Commodore  Barclay,  consisted  of  six  vessels,  mount- 
ing in  all  63  guns — the  American  fleet  of  nine  vessels,  and  56 
guns;  the  firing  commenced  at  12  o'clock:  in  three  hours  the 
Americans  gained  a  complete  victory,  and  became  masters  of 
the  lake.  What  did  General  Harrison  do  after  this  victory  ? 
He  crossed  over  to  the  Canadian  shore,  and  on  the  5th  October 
fought  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  Give  some  particulars  of  this 
battle.  The  British  army  under  Proctor  consisted  of  2,000 
men,  more  than  half  of  whom  were  Indians,  under  Tecumseh ; 
these  being  charged  by  Colonel  Johnson,  with  the  Kentucky 
cavalry,  were  routed,  and  Tecumseh  slain,  which  in  a  great 
measure  decided  the  fate  of  the  day ;  the  British  were  entirely 
defeated.  What  was  the  result  of  the  action  at  Williamsburg  ? 
1,200  Americans  under  General  Boyd  were  defeated  by  2,000 
British  under  Lieutenant-colonel  Morrison.  What  did  the  British 
do  at  Buffalo  ?  They  burnt  Bufialo,  and  some  other  villages,  in 
retaliation  for  the  burning  of  Newark,  in  Canada,  by  the  Ameri- 
cans. What  was  going  on  in  the  south  at  this  period?  The 
British  fleet  under  Admiral  Cockburn  committed  great  depreda- 
tions on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  ;  but  in  an  attack  on 
Craney's  Island,  they  were  repulsed  by  the  Virginia  militia. 
Give  some  account  of  the  engagement  between  the  Hornet  and  tho 
Peacock.  Captain  Lawrence'in  the  U.  S.  ship  Hornet,  attacked 
the  British  sloop  Peacock,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  gained  a 
complete  victory :  unfortunately,  the  Peacock  sunk  before  all  her 
wounded  could  be  removed.     What  naval  engagement  took 


200  ATTACK  ON  WASHINGTON. 

place  in  June  ?  That  between  the  U.  S.  ship  Chesapeake^ 
Captain  Lawrence,  and  the  British  ship  Shannon,  Captain  Brooke, 
in  which  the  Chesapeake  was  taken,  and  Captain  Lawrence 
killed  :  the  last  words  of  this  brave  officer  were,  "  Don't  give  up 
the  ship."  What  other  engagements  took  place  in  this  year  ? 
The  Argus  was  captured  by  the  British  sloop  Pelican,  and  the 
Enterprise  captured  the  British  brig  Boxer.  What  occurred  in 
July,  1814  ?  On  the  2d  July,  General  Brown  took  Fort  Erie 
from  the  British,  and  on  the  6th  attacked'  and  defeated  them 
under  General  Riall,  at  Chippewa :  in  this  battle  General  Scott, 
who  commanded  one  brigade  of  the  American  army,  highly 
distinguished  himself.  When  was  the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane 
fought  ?  On  the  25th  July ;  the  Americans  were  commanded  by 
generals  Scott  and  Ripley,  and  the  British  by  generals  Drum- 
mond  and  Riall.  What  was  the  result  of  this  engagement? 
In  favor  of  the  Americans,  though  the  loss  was  about  equal  on 
both  sides.  What  was  the  last  action  of  importance  on  this 
frontier?  The  attack  of  the  British  on  Fort  Erie,  in  which 
they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  What  expedition  did  the 
British  resolve  on  in  August  ?  An  attack  on  Washington,  by  a 
fleet  of  60  sail,  and  an  army  of  5,000  men,  under  General 
Ross.  What  did  they  do  on  their  way  thither  ?  Having  landed 
in  the  Patuxet,  40  miles  from  Washington,  they  defeated  the 
American  militia,  under  General  Winder,  at  Bladensburg.  What 
did  they  do  at  Washington  ?  They  burned  the  capitol,  with 
the  records,  etc.,  the  president's  house,  public  offices,  and 
many  private  dwellings,  and  then  retreated  to  their  ships. 
What  did  the  British  do  in  September  ?  They  made  a  similar 
attempt  on  Baltimore,  but  were  finally  repulsed  without  having 
been  able  to  effect  much ;  in  this  attack  General  Ross  fell. 
What  occurred  at  Plattsburg  in  the  same  month  ?  Sir  Geoi*ge 
Provost  with  14,000  men,  aided  by  Commodore  Downie  with 
a  fleet  mounting  95  guns,  attacked  that  place.  What  was  tlie 
result  of  this  attack  ?  Commodore  Downie  was  defeated  by 
Commodore  McDonough,  with  a  fleet  mounting  86  guns ;  and 
Sir  George  Provost  having  attacked  the  forts  was  driven  off  by 
General  Macomb.  How  were  the  naval  engagements  conducted  ? 
The  Americans  were  generally  successful ;  they  captured  many 
English  merchant  vessels,  besides  several  men-of-war,  among 
these  the  Epervier,  Swan,  Reindeer,  Cyane,  Levant,  and  Penguin, 
while  the  British  victories  were  few  in  comparison  ;  they  how- 
ever took,  among  others,  the  Essex  and  the  President,  Ameri- 
can frigates.  When  was  the  treaty  between  England  and  tha 
United  States  commenced,  and  when  was  it  finally  settled  ?    In 


DEATH   OF  ADAMS  AND  JEFFERSON.  201 

April,  1813,  commissioners  Avere  appointed  to  meet  at  Gotten- 
burg,  but  afterwards  the  place  of  meeting  was  changed  tc 
Ghent ;  and  there  the  treaty  was  concluded  on  the  24tli  De 
cember,  1814.  Give  the  names  of  the  American  commissioners 
who  signed  this  treaty.  John  Quincy  Adams,  Albert  Gallatin, 
and  James  A.  Bayard :  Henry  Clay  and  Jonathan  Russell  wev 
added  to  the  three  first  mentioned.  What  was  the  last  import- 
ant operation  of  the  war  ?  The  battle  of  New  Orleans,  which 
occurred  on  the  8  th  of  January,  1815  :  the  English,  under  Sir 
Edward  Packenham,  were  totally  defeated  by  the  Americans, 
who  w  ere  commanded  by  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  ;  the  British  loss 
amounted  to  2,000  men,  and  their  commander  also  was  killed. 
What  war  was  America  engaged  in  shortly  after  the  pea-ce 
was  ratified  with  Great  Britain  ?  With  Algiers,  the  Algerines 
having  violated  the  treaty  of  1795,  and  committed  depredations 
on  the  commerce  of  the  United  States.  What  measures  did 
Congress  take  to  intimidate  the  Dey  of  Algiers  ?  They  fitted 
out  two  squadrons  under  commodores  Decatur  and  Bainbridge ; 
they  set  sail  in  June,  captured  some  Algerine  vessels  off  Cape 
Palos,  and  then  sailed  for  Algiers.  Give  some  further  account 
of  this  expedition.  Decatur  obliged  the  Dey  to  sign  a  treaty 
of  peace  highly  advantageous  to  the  Americans ;  he  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  where  he  obtained  satisfaction  for 
their  unprovoked  aggression.  When  w^as  the  national  bank 
established  ?  In  April,  1816,  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress, 
establishing  a  national  bank,  with  a  capital  of  $35,000,000. 
When  was  the  territory  of  Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a  state  ?  In  December,  1816  ;  in  the  same  year  James  Monroe 
was  elected  President,  and  entered  on  his  official  duties  the 
following  March.  When  were  the  territories  of  Mississippi,  Illi- 
nois, and  Alabama  admitted  into  the  Union  ?  In  the  years 
1817,  1818,  and  1819.  What  treaty  was  negotiated  in  1819, 
and  finally  settled  in  1820  ?  That  by  which  Spain  ceded  East 
and  West  Florida  and  the  adjacent  islands  to  the  United  States, 
as  indemnity  for  spoliations  committed  on  the  property  of  Amer- 
ican citizens.  Who  succeeded  James  Monroe  as  President? 
John  Quincy  Adams,  in  1825.  What  remarkable  event  occurred 
on  the  4th  July,  1826  ?  The  death  of  John  Adams  and  Tho- 
mas Jefferson,  two  of  the  principal  contributors  to  American 
Independence ;  and  on  the  following  anniversary  died  another 
ex-preside^t,  James  Monroe.  Who  succeeded  John  Q.  Adams 
in  the  presidential  chair  ?  Andrew  Jackson,  the  hero  of  New 
Orleans,  in  1829.  What  difficulties  occurred  with  the  Indiana 
in  1832  ?     In  April  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  undsr  their  chief, 


202  THE  SEMINOLE  WAR 

Black  Hawk,  ravaged  the  northern  part  of  Illinois,  murdering 
the  settlers  and  burning  their  dwellings:  generals  Scott  and 
Atkinson  were  sent  to  suppress  them.     What  dreadful  epidemic 
prevailed  throughout  America  m  this  year  ?     The  Asiatic  chol- 
era; it  broke  out  among  the  troops  destined  for  the  Indian 
frontier,  and  added  greatly  to  Gen.  Scott's  toil  and  sufferings. 
What  was  the  result  of  this  war  ?     Black  Hawk  and  his  son 
were  taken  prisoners,  and  after  some  months'  detention,  allowed 
to  return  to  their  people,  satisfied  of  the^folly  of  contending 
with  the  United  States.     What  other  Indian  disturbances  oc- 
curred in   1834?     The  Seminoles,  a  warlike  tribe  inhabiting 
East  Florida,  refused  to  remove  west  of  the  Mississippi,  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  a  treaty  which  they  had  signed  ;  General 
Jackson,  however,  insisted  on  their  removal,  and  a  sanguinary 
war  was  the  consequence.    Who  was  the  principal  Indian  chief? 
Osceola,  or  Powell :  his  father  was  an  Englishman,  his  mother  a 
Seminole  :  at  his  instigation  Charley  Amathla,  a  chief  favorable 
to  the  removal,  was  killed ;  this  w^as  the  first  outbreak.     Give 
some  account  of  the  war.     From  the  favorable  nature  of  the 
country,  the  Indians,  although  few  in  number,  were  enabled  to 
baffle  the  pursuit  of  the  troops,  and  kept  up  a  succession  of 
devastations  and  massacres ;  often  surprising  small  bodies  of 
troops  and  committing  great  slaughter  among  them.     Which 
were  the  most  bloody  of  these  rencounters  ?     That  in  which 
Major  Dade  and  his  command  of  117  men  were  killed,  but  one 
escaping  to  tell  the  tale ;  and  the  surprise  of  Camp  King,  the 
same  day,  23d  December,  1835.    What  was  the  fate  of  Osceola? 
He  came  into  the  American  camp,  with  10  warriors,  under  the 
protection  of  a  flag  ;  General  Jesup  suspecting  him  of  treacher}^, 
caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  at  Fort  Moultrie,  where  he  died  a 
few  months  after  :  it  was  generally  supposed  this  event  would 
put  an  end  to  the  war,  but  the  Seminoles  refused  to  make  any 
treaty,  and  the  war  continued  for  some  years.     Wliat  is  gener- 
ally thought  of  the  Florida  war  ?     That  it  was  one  of  the  great- 
est danger  and  hardship  that  America  had  been  engaged  in ; 
numbers  of  brave  men  and  officers  perished  on  the  battle-field, 
or  in  the  fatal  swamps  of  the  country.     What  outbreak  occur- 
red in  Alabama  among  the  Creek  Indians  ?     In  1836,  Osceola 
sent  the  war-belt  to  the  Creeks,  and  they  rose  upon  the  de- 
fenceless inhabitants,  murdering  their   families,   and    burning 
their  houses ;  thsy  were  soon  defeated  and  dispersed  by  Gen. 
Scott,  who  restored  peace  early  in  the  summer.     Who  suc- 
ceeded Andrew  Jackson  as  President  ?     Martin  Yan  Buren,  in 
183'Z.     During  his  administration,  the  revolt  m  Canada  occur- 


WAR   WITH  MXXICO.  203 

red,  and  it  was  sympathized  with  by  the  neighboring  Ameri- 
cans. What  steps  were  taken  by  those  Americans  who  were 
friendly  to  the  Canadian  insurgents  ?  These  adventurers  took 
possession  of  Navy  Island,  situated  in  Niagara  river,  and  fortified 
it  against  the  British,  whom  they  contrived  to  annoy  by  firing 
upon  the  Canada  shore,  and  destroying  their  boats.  What 
proclamation  did  Martin  Van  Buren  and  Governor  Marcy  issue  ? 
One  ordering  and  enjoining  the  American  people  to  preserve  a 
strict  neutrality ;  nevertheless  these  adventurers  purchased  arms 
and  ammunition,  and  carried  on  the  war  with  the  British.  Give 
some  further  account  of  their  proceedings.  They  hired  the  steam- 
boat Caroline  to  ply  between  the  Island  and  American  shore; 
she  began  to  run  on  the  29th  of  December,  and  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day,  a  party  of  armed  men  crossed  from  the  Cana- 
dian to  the  American  shore,  drove  the  men  on  board  the  Carohne 
ashore,  set  her  on  fire,  and  cutting  her  adrift,  let  her  float  over 
the  falls ;  an  American  of  the  name  of  Durfee  was  killed,  and 
the  American  government  had  a  British  subject  (McLeod)  tried 
for  the  murder,  but  he  was  eventually  released.  Who  was 
elected  to  the  presidential  chair  in  1841?  William  Henry 
Harrison ;  but  dying  a  month  after,  the  vice-president,  John 
Tyler,  became  president.  What  difficulties  occurred  with  the 
British  government  during  Mr.  Tyler's  administration  ?  Diffi- 
culties growing  out  of  the  Northeastern  boundary  question. 
Gen.  Scott  was  stationed  there  by  the  American  government 
to  preserve  the  peace  between  the  inhabitants  on  either  side  of 
the  line ;  these  difficulties  were,  however,  amicably  adjusted. 
Who  succeeded  John  Tyler?  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee, 
who  was  elected  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1845.  What 
difficulties  arose  between  England  and  the  United  States  in 
the  early  part  of  Mr.  Polk's  administration  ?  Difficulties  rel- 
ative to  the  Oregon  question,  which  it  was  feared  at  one  time 
would  lead  to  war  between  the  two  nations ;  but  these  were 
also  amicably  settled.  What  large  tract  of  country  was  an- 
nexed to  the  United  States  while  Mr.  Polk  was  president  ?  The 
Republic  of  Texas,  at  their  own  earnest  desire,  became  part  of 
the  Union.  What  war  was  the  United  States  involved  in,  in 
consequence  of  this  annexation  ?  A  war  with  Mexico,  of  which 
Texas  formerly  constituted  a  part.  What  led  to  the  first  out- 
break in  this  war  ?  A  part  of  the  American  forces  under  Gen. 
Taylor,  stationed  on  the  Rio  Grande,  were  ordered  by  the  Mex- 
icans to  retire  from  that  section  of  country,  and  on  their  refu- 
sing to  do  so,  were  attacked  by  the  Mexicans.  Were  the  Amer- 
icans generally  successful  in  this  war  ?     Their  progress  through 


204  DEATH  OF  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS. 

the  country  up  to  tlie  time  of  their  entering  the  Mexican  capi- 
tal, was  one  series  of  brilHant  victories  against  overwhelming 
odds ;  neither  their  superior  numbers  nor  better  knowledge  of 
the  country,  enabled  the  Mexicans  to  stay  for  a  moment  the 
onward  march  of  the  Americans.  What  oflicer  particularly 
distinguished  himself?  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  who  at  Palo 
Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  particularly  at  Buena  Vista, 
covered  himself  with  unfading  glory.  What  other  officer  fully 
sustained  his  former  high  reputation  ?  Gen.  Winfield  Scott, 
the  hero  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  Lane,  who,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Vera  Cruz,  marched  to  the  capital,  gaining  many  bril- 
liant victories  by  the  way.  A  treaty  between  the  two  nations 
is  now  being  negotiated,  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  soon  lead 
to  peace.  What  great  man  died  in  this  year,  1848  ?  John 
Quincy  Adams,  who  was  struck  down  while  in  his  seat  as  a 
Representative  from  Massachusetts,  and  after  lingering  a  few 
days,  died ;  the  whole  population  of  the  different  cities  through 
which  his  body  passed  on  its  way  to  Boston,  turned  out  to  do 
honor  to  the  remains  of  this  pure  patriot  and  great  statesman. 


aUESTIONS  ON  THE  CONSTITUTION.  205 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


INTRODUCTIO]Sr. 

We  pass  by  the  causes  which  led  to  a  confederation  cf  the 
American  colonies,  the  chief  object  of  which  ivas  to  secure 
union  and  strength  in  their  eflForts  to  throw  off  the  British  yoke, 
as  that  has  been  fully  explained  in  the  foregoing  History ;  and 
in  this  introduction  to  the  Questions  on  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  will  merely  state  the  nature  of  the  resolutions 
then  formed,  the  adoption  of  them,  and  the  formation  of  the  first 
and  second  Constitutions.  In  1774,  the  assembling  of  a  Conti- 
nental Congress  was  first  recommended ;  and  in  accordance  with 
this,  a  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia  on  the  Vth  September  of 
that  year,  in  the  course  of  whose  deliberations  a  Declaration  of 
Rights  was  adopted.  This  was  followed,  in  the  year  1*776,  by 
a  resolution  asserting  their  independence ;  and  on  the  4th  July, 
1776,  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  formally  adopted, 
proclaiming  to  the  world  that  the  American  colonies  "  were,  and 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states,"  and  absolving  them 
from  all  allegianse  to  the  government  of  Great  Britain.  The 
articles  of  confederation,  however,  did  not  receive  the  assent  of 
Congress  until  the  latter  end  of  1777  ;  and  were  not  attended  to 
by  the  state  of  Maryland  until  1781,  when,  having  been  duly 
ratified  by  all  the  states,  the  fact,  was  announced  by  Congress. 
Their  adoption  was  attended  by  many  obstacles,  as  various  con- 
flicting interests  had  to  be  reconciled,  whose  force  had  not  been 
diminished  by  the  crippled  condition  in  which  the  resources  of 
the  country  were  left  after  the  Revolutionary  struggle.  The 
chief  cause  of  the  downfall  was  the  want  of  due  authority  and 
power  over  the  states,  and  an  absence,  in  consequence,  of  that 
strict  allegiance  and  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  latter  to  the 
general  government,  so  essential  to  the  union  in  its  infancy. 
Daily  experience  called  loudly  for  some  substitute,  to  exercise 
the  functions  necessary  to  control  the  several  members ;  and  the 
subject  having  been  duly  considered  and  discussed,  delegates 
weri  sent  to  a  convention  of  all  the  states,  and  on  the  21st  of 
February,  1787,  the  present  Constitution  was  adopted,  and  sub- 
sequently ratified  by  the  states,  with  the  exception  of  North 
Carolina  and  Rhode  Island.     By  the  accession  to  it  oi  nine 

18 


206  auESTioNs  on  the 

states,  it  became,  in  1788,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
The  two  dissenting  states  acceded  to  it  in  the  course  of  the  twa 
following  years.  On  the  30th  of  April,  1789,  George  Wash- 
ington,  the  Father  of  the  country,  was  unanimously  elected 
President  of  the  Federal  Repubhc.  A  Republic  is  that  form 
of  government,  where  the  executive  and  legislative  powers  are 
vested  by  the  people  in  their  agents  or  representatives ;  an 
Aristocracy  is  where  these  powers  are  confined  to  a  portion  only 
of  the  people ;  and  a  Democracy,  where  it  is  exercised  directly 
by  the  people  themselves.  To  the  first  class  belongs  the  Re- 
public of  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  code  of  its 
principles  forms  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  government  of  the  United  States  ?  A  Federal 
Republic.  What  constitutes  the  Repubhc  ?  At  this  time, 
(1849,)  thirty  states ;  the  original  number,  in  1789,  was  thirteen : 
these  states  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  within  their  own  borders 
of  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  domestic  or  local  affairs,  while 
those  of  an  external  or  national  character  are  vested  in  the 
general  government.  Part  of  the  public  domain  is  also  divided 
into  territories,  which  are  also  under  the  control  of  the  general 
government.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  general  government  ? 
The  federal  power  created  by  the  union  of  the  states,  and  the 
people  thereof,  in  their  collective  capacity.  Of  what  parts,  or 
branches,  is  that  government  composed  ?  Of  three,  the  legisla- 
tive, executive,  and  judicial  powers.  What  are  the  powers  of 
the  legislative  branch  ?  To  the  legislative  branch  is  confided 
the  duty  of  apportioning  moneys  for  the  support  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  appropriations,  which  are  limited  in  duration  to  two 
years ;  of  raising  and  maintaining  the  army  and  supporting  the 
navy  ;  collecting  taxes,  and  other  means  of  revenue ;  regulating 
commerce ;  declaring  war,  including  the  grant  of  letters  of  re- 
prisal and  marque ;  punishing  all  offences  against  the  law  of 
nations ;  pror.ding  for  the  disciplining  and  arming  the  militia ; 
and  of  making,  abrogating,  and  repealing  all  laws  necessary  for 
effecting  these  purposes,  or  any  others  vested  by  the  Constitution 
or  laws  in  any  department  of  the  government.  Of  what  is  the 
legislature  composed?  Of  a  House  of  Representatives,  and 
Senate.  How  is  the  number  of  the  representatives  regulated  ? 
By  the  aggregate  of  inhabitants :  each  member  representing  the 
number  which  Congress  may  decree.  In  those  states  where 
slavery  exists,  in   estimating   the   population,  five   slaves   are 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  207 

counted  as  three  whites.  How  is  the  number  determined  ?  By 
a  census,  taken  every  ten  years.  What  are  the  quahfications 
necessary  for  a  representative  ?  To  have  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-five  years,  to  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
for  seven  years,  and  an  inhabitant,  when  chosen,  of  the  state 
from  which  elected.  What  provision  is  there  for  vacancies,  by 
resignation,  or  otherwise  ?  The  executive  of  the  state  issues  a 
ivrit  for  an  election  to  fill  the  same.  What  are  the  particular 
powers  of  this  branch  of  the  legislature  ?  The  originating  of  all 
bills  involving  the  expenditure  of  money ;  the  sole  right  of  im- 
peachment, with  the  power  of  deciding  on  the  election  of  its 
own  members.  For  what  length  of  time  are  the  members 
chosen  ?  The  term  of  two  years.  How  are  they  chosen  ?  By 
a  direct  vote  of  the  people,  whose  privileges  are  controlled  by 
the  state  laws,  with  the  express  provision,  however,  that  no 
person  shall  vote  for  a  national  representative,  who  is  not 
entitled  to  vote  for  a  member  of  the  house  of  delegates  of  his 
own  state.  What  constitutes  a  quorum  ?  A  majority :  though 
a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  compel 
the  presence  of  absent  members.  May  a  member  be  expelled  ? 
Yes,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds.  What  peculiar  privilege  have  the 
members  of  Congress?  They  are  exempt  from  arrest  during 
their  attendance  at,  and  passage  to  and  from  either  house,  except 
for  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace.  Have  they,  or  can 
they  grant,  any  titles  ?  They  have  not,  and  cannot  grant  them : 
the  Constitution  allows  no  grant  of  titles  from  any  source.  What 
is  the  compensation  to  the  members  ?  An  allowance  of  eight 
dollars  per  diem,  and  a  certain  sum  per  mile  when  travelling  on 
the  public  service.  Who  is  the  presiding  officer  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  ?  The  Speaker.  How  is  he  chosen  ?  By  a 
vote  of  ;;he  members.  Of  what  is  the  Senate  composed  ?  Of 
two  members  from  each  state  in  the  union,  each  of  whom  is 
entitled  to  one  vote.  For  what  time  are  they  chosen  ?  For  the 
term  of  six  years.  By  whom  are  they  chosen  ?  By  the  legisla- 
tures of  their  respective  states.  What  are  they  considered  to 
represent  ?  The  states,  as  sovereignties.  By  concession,  each 
member  of  the  federal  union  was  considered  in  such  capacity, 
by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution,  as  entitled  to  equal  repre- 
sentation. In  what  particulars  do  the  two  houses  of  Congress 
differ  ?  The  Senate  may  be  called  the  conservative,  while  the 
House  is  denominated  the  popular  branch.  Wlience  arises  this 
distinction  ?  From  the  mode  of  their  election  :  the  Senate 
checks  a  too  partial  and  hasty,  as  well  as  uncalled  for  legisla- 
tion, by  those  in  immediate  contact  with  popular  caprice ;  while 


208  auESTioNs  on  the 

the  experience  and  superior  wisdom  of  matured  deliberation 
affords  an  opportunity  for  correcting  errors,  proceeding  from 
faction,  or  designed  for  partisan  objects.  Has  either  house  the 
power  of  passing  laws  independent  of  the  other  ?  No  law  can 
pass  from  the  legislative  to  the  executive  branch  before  receiving 
the  assent  of  both  houses ;  and  the  Senate  may  defeat,  by  amend- 
ments, or  refusal  to  act,  money  bills,  which  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  thus  check  the  exercise,  by  the 
latter,  of  this  prerogative  confided  to  them,  from  their  presumed 
superior  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  the  country,  they  being  fresh 
from  the  people.  Does  the  term  of  office  of  all  the  senators  ex- 
pire at  the  same  time  ?  No :  it  was  provided  that  immediately 
after  assembling,  after  the  first  election,  they  should  be  divided  as 
equally  as  possible  into  three  classes  ;  the  seats  of  the  first  to  be 
vacated  after  the  expiration  of  the  second  year;  those  of  the 
second,  after  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year;  of  the  third, 
after  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  in  order  that  one-third 
might  be  chosen  every  year.  In  case  of  the  admission  of  a  new 
state  into  the  union,  how  is  this  decided  ?  By  ballot :  one  sen- 
ator taking  the  four,  the  other  the  six  years  term.  What  are 
the  qualifications  of  a  senator  ?  A  citizenship  of  nine  years,  to 
have  attained  the  age  of  thirty,  and  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
state  from  which  chosen.  What  provision  is  there  for  vacancies 
by  resignation,  or  otherwise  ?  The  executive  of  the  state  makes 
temporary  appointments,  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legisla- 
ture, which  fills  the  vacancy.  Who  is  the  presiding  officer  of 
the  Senate  ?  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States ;  or,  in 
his  absence,  a  president  pro  tern.,  chosen  by  a  vote  of  the 
senators.  Has  the  Vice-President  a  vote?  Only  in  cases  of 
equal  division,  when  he  gives  a  casting  vote.  Does  the  Senate 
choose  the  other  officers  ?  Yes,  Can  the  Senate  originate  an 
impeachment  ?  No  :  they  can  only  try  the  accused,  under  their 
oath,  for  the  conviction  of  whom  a  vote  of  two-thirds  is  requisite. 
If  the  President  of  the  United  States  be  the  accused,  the  Chief- 
Justice  presides  What  is  the  extent  of  the  penalty  they  can 
impose  ?  Removal  f'-om,  and  disqualification  to  hold  any  place 
of  profit,  trust,  or  emolument  under  the  government  of  the 
United  States.  The  party  may  afterwards  be  tried,  convicted, 
and  punished,  as  provided  by  law  for  any  criminal.  What  are 
considered  the  grounds  for  impeachment  ?  Treason,  bribery, 
and  other  like  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  Has  the  Senate  any 
other  peculiar  powers  ?  Yes :  executive  restraints,  which  will 
be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government.      How   often,  and    when,  does    Congress   meet  ? 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  209 

Once  every  year,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  on  the  first  Monday 
in  December,  unless  convened  at  some  other  period  by  procla- 
mation of  the  Pif'sident  of  the  United  States,  to  decide  on 
matters  of  immediate  importance.  Wkat  constitutes  a  quorum 
of  the  Senate  ?  The  rules  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  What  .6  meant  by  "a"  Congress?  A 
period  of  two  years,  comprising  two  sessions  of  that  body. 
Does  Congress  keep  a  record  of  its  proceedings  ?  Regular 
journals  are  kept  and  published  of  the  proceedings  of  both 
houses,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  it  may  be  deemed 
important  to  keep  secret.  How  is  a  vote  of  the  Senate  taken  ? 
The  vote  is  invariably  taken  viva  voce,  but  a  division  and  count 
may  be  had,  if  called  for.  A  vote  of  one-fifth  of  the  members 
present  may  also  secure  the  "  ayes"  and  "  nays^'  on  any  question. 
What  is  meant  by  a  "  calV  of  the  house  ?  A  call  of  the  house 
is  the  calling  by  the  clerk  of  the  names  of  all  the  members,  to 
ascertain  who  are  the  absentees,  and  the  sergeant-at-arms  may 
compel  their  presence.  Can  either  house  adjourn  ?  Neither 
house  can  adjourn  without  the  consent  of  the  other  for  more 
than  three  days,  or  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the 
session  may  be  held  at  the  time  of  adjournment.  Is  a  member 
of  Congress  eligible  for  any  other  office  ?  None  which  has  been 
created,  or  enlarged  in  its  emoluments,  during  the  period  foi 
which  he  was  elected.  The  reverse  of  this  applies  to  persons, 
holding  civil  offices,  with  regard  to  eligibility  to  Congress.  How 
arc  the  laws  made  ?  Laws  are  required  to  pass  the  two  houses 
of  Congress,  after  which  they  are  presented  for  signature  to 
the  President,  without  whose  consent  they  cannot  go  into  force. 
Can  the  President  prevent  the  passage  of  any  bill  ?  If  the  Pres- 
ident does  not  approve  any  bill  he  may  return  it  to  the  house 
of  Congress  in  which  it  originated,  and  his  objections  will  defeat 
its  operation,  unless  overcome  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds,  in  both 
houses.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  his  "  veto"  has  no  influence. 
In  the  reconsideration  of  a  bill,  how  must  the  vote  be  taken  ? 
By  the  "ayes"  and  "nays,"  and  entered  in  full  on  the  journals 
of  both  houses.  Can  the  President  retain  a  bill  without  his 
wgnature  ?  He  may  for  a  period  not  exceeding  ten  days,  (ex- 
clusive of  Sundays :)  if  he  fails  to  return  it  at  the  expiration  of 
this  time,  the  bill  becomes  a  law,  unless  Congress  shall  have 
adjourned  in  the  mean  time.  Does  this  comprise  all  submitted 
to  the  President  for  his  signature  ?  No :  every  order,  resolution, 
or  vote,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  adjournment,  is  subject  to 
his  approval,  under  the  same  restrictions.  Are  the  teriitories 
represented  in  Congress?     Each  territory  under  an  organized 

18* 


210  aUESTIONS  ON  THE 

territorial  government  is  entitled  to  one  delegate  in  the  House  ol 
Representatives,  who  has  the  right  of  speaking,  but  not  of  voting. 
Wliere  does  Congress  meet  ?  In  the  city  of  Washington,  in  the 
"  Capitol,''  a  building  erected  for  the  legislative  and  judicial 
branches  to  hold  their  meetings.  The  District  of  Columbia,  in 
which  Washington  is  situated,  possesses  no  state  jurisdiction, 
being  entirely  under  the  control  of  Congress,  having  been  ceded 
to  the  general  government  by  the  states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia 
Can  Congress  tax,  or  lay  a  duty,  upon  any  articles  exported  from 
one  state  to  another  ?  No  tax  or  duty  can  be  laid  on  articles 
transported  from  state  to  state ;  nor  can  any  preference  be  given 
in  a  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  any  particular  state ; 
nor  can  the  cargoes  of  vessels  trading  between  the  ports  of  dif- 
ferent states  be  charged  with  duties.  Can  any  officer  of  this 
government  be  rewarded  by  any  other  government,  either  by 
title  or  profit  ?  Not  without  the  consent  of  Congress.  This 
provision  is  to  secure  additional  purity  in  public  officers.  Are 
the  rights  of  the  states  defined  ?  Those  powers  extended  to  the 
general  government  which  are  denied  the  states,  are  expressly 
defined.  To  a  certain  extent,  however,  the  states  have  complete 
jurisdiction  over  those  state  affairs  not  conflicting  with  the  gen- 
eral government.  Can  any  state  enter  into  compact  with,  or 
declare  war  against,  another  state  or  foreign  power  ?  Only  in 
case  of  actual  invasion,  or  where  the  imminence  of  the  danger 
precludes  delay.  How  is  the  executive  power  vested  ?  In  one 
presiding  officer,  termed  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  There  is  also  a  Vice-President,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
preside  over  the  Senate,  and,  in  case  of  accident  or  death  to  the 
President,  discharges  his  duties.  For  how  long  a  period  are  the 
President  and  Vice-President  chosen  ?  For  a  term  of  four  years. 
How  are  they  elected?  By  electors.  How  are  the  electors 
chosen  ?  By  a  direct  vote  of  the  people  in  every  state,  in  such 
manner  as  its  own  legislature  may  direct.  In  case  of  more  than 
two  candidates  for  the  presidency,  are  those  electors  chosen 
having  the  highest  number  of  votes  ?  This  matter  is  under  the 
control  of  the  states ;  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast  being 
requisite  in  some,  and  plurahty  only  in  others.  Is  there  a  direct 
vote  of  the  people  for  electors  in  every  state  ?  In  all,  with  the 
exception  of  South  Carolina,  where  the  legislature  elects.  Arc 
people  residing  in  the  territories  entitled  to  a  presidential  vote  ? 
They  are  not.  How  with  regard  to  the  District  of  Columbia  ? 
The  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia  do  not  participate  in  the 
election ;  being  to  a  great  extent  composed  of  those  connected 
with  the  government,  they  are  thus  removed  from  all  party 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  211 

influences.  Can  any  representative,  senator,  or  person  holding 
office  under  the  government,  be  an  elector  ?  No,  he  cannot. 
Where,  and  hoTV,  do  the  electors  vote?  In  the  capitol  of  each 
state,  by  ballot,  and  on  the  same  day  throughout  the  union. 
Ccin  the  President  and  Vice-President  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  state  ?  They  cannot.  Where  are  the  electoral  votes 
finally  counted  ?  In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  by  the 
President  of  that  body,  the  vote  of  each  state  having  been  sealed 
and  transmitted  to  him.  The  candidate  for  each  office  who  has 
the  majority  of  electoral  votes,  is  then  declared,  by  the  president 
of  the  Senate,  duly  elected.  How  are  the  sealed  votes  conveyed 
to  the  Senate  ?  By  one  of  the  electors  of  each  state,  chosen 
from  their  body  for  that  purpose.  Should  there  be  no  m&jority, 
what  is  then  done  ?  The  three  candidates  having  the  highest 
number  of  votes  are  then  selected,  and  one  of  them  must  be 
chosen  by  a  vote  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  by  ballot. 
How  does  the  House  of  Representatives  vote  ?  By  states,  the 
representation  from  each  having  one  vote.  In  case  of  equal 
party  division  in  the  representation,  how  is  the  choice  made  ? 
The  vote  of  the  state  thus  equally  divided  is  lost,  the  choice 
being  made  by  the  remaining  states.  What  number  is  required 
for  this  purpose  ?  Two-thirds  of  the  states  of  the  union,  a  ma- 
jority of  the  whole  number  being  necessary  to  a  choice.  Should 
the  House  not  be  able  to  choose  a  President,  what  is  done  then  ? 
The  Vice-President  acts  as  President.  Should  the  people  fail 
to  elect  a  Vice-President,  how  is  he  chosen  ?  By  the  Senate, 
from  the  two  candidates  having  the  highest  number  of  votes ; 
with  the  same  restrictions  as  to  the  requisite  number  of  senators 
as  those  enforced  with  regard  to  representatives  in  the  House,  in 
the  choice  of  a  President.  How,  and  when,  is  the  day  of  election 
for  President  and  Vice-President  appointed  ?  By  Congress, 
which,  by  a  recent  law,  has  enacted  that  the  election  throughout 
the  Union  shall  be  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  November,  next  pre- 
ceding the  expiration  of  a  presidential  term.  On  what  day  does 
this  term  expire  ?  On  the  third  day  of  March,  every  fourth 
year.  May  the  President  be  chosen  for  a  second  term  ?  He 
may.  Is  the  same  person  again  eligible  as  President  ?  Eight 
years  has  hitherto  been  the  extent  that  any  one  person  has  filled 
the  presidential  chair,  although  the  Constitution  does  not  define 
the  time.  _  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  President  ?  He  must 
have  ^attained  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  be  horn  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  have  been  for  fourteen  years  a  resident 
of  the  same.  Do  the  same  restrictions  apply  to  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent ?     They  do.     In  what  case  do  the  duties  devolve  upon 


212  QUESTIONS  ON  THE 

the  Vice-President  ?  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President, 
by  death,  resignation,  or  inabihty  to  discharge  his  duties.  Should 
both  be  incapacitated  by  any  of  these  causes,  what  must  be  done  ? 
Congress  must  declare  what  officer  shall  act  as  President,  and  he 
shall  continue  in  such  capacity  during  the  continuance  of  such 
disability.  Does  the  President  receive  a  compensation  ?  Yes : 
$25,000  per  annum,  which  can  neither  be  increased  nor  dimin- 
ished during  his  term,  nor  enlarged  by  extra  allowance  from  the 
government,  or  any  state  or  states.  What  is  the  compensation 
of  the  Vice-President  ?  $6,000  per  annum,  subject  to  the  same 
restrictions.  AVhat  is  the  oath  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  ?  "  I  do  solemnly  swear,  (or  affirm,)  that  I  will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to 
the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States."  By  whom  is  it  administered  ? 
By  the  Chief- Justice.  What  mihtary  power  has  the  President  ? 
He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of  the 
militia,  when  called  into  actual  semce.  Has  he  the  power  of 
pardoning  offences  ?  In  all  cases  coming  under  United  States 
jurisdiction,  except  those  of  impeachment.  What  other  powers 
has  he  ?  He  makes  treaties,  appoints  ambassadors,  consuls,  and 
other  public  ministers,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all 
other  officers  of  the  United  States  established  by  law,  and  whose 
appointment  are  not  otherwise  provided  for  by  the  Constitution 
Is  there  any  limitation  to  his  powers  ?  Yes :  all  treaties,  to  bs 
vahd,  require  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  of 
the  Senate  present  when  action  is  had  on  the  same.  A  majority 
of  this  body  must  also  approve  his  selection  of  all  the  officers  we 
have  named.  During  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  can  the  President 
grant  commissions,  or  make  appointments  ?  He  may :  but  if 
not  approved  by  the  Senate  during  its  ensuing  session,  the  same 
are  null  and  void.  What  is  the  course  of  proceeding  by  the 
Senate  on  executive  nominations?  It  has  what  is  termed  an 
executive  session,  deliberating  with  closed  doors  ;  proceedings  of 
this  character  are  not  divulged  until  the  injunction  of  secrecy  be 
removed  by  its  own  will.  By  whom  is  the  President  assisted  in 
the  government  ?  '  By  his  Cabinet.  Of  whom  is  the  Cabinet 
composed  ?  Of  a  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the  Nav}%  Attorney- General,  and 
Postmaster- General,  who  take  precedence  in  the  order  recited. 
What  are  their  duties  ?  To  each  is  intrusted  that  department 
of  executive  business  signified  by  his  title,  all  being  separate  and 
distinct,  to  a  certain  extent.  How  does  the  President  commu- 
nicate with  Congress  ?     Always  in  writing.     At  their  annual 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  213 

meeting  lie  transmits  a  message  regarding  the  state  of  the  union, 
and  suggesting  such  measures  as  he  may  deem  essential  for  the 
pubUc  weal ;  also  whenever  he  thinks  it  necessary  or  expedient 
during  their  session.  Can  the  President  convene  or  adjourn 
Congress  ?  Yes :  on  extraordinary  occasions  he  may  call  an 
extra  session  of  both  houses,  or  either  of  them  ;  or  if  they  shall 
disagree  in  regard  to  the  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  for 
such  a  period  as  he  may  deem  proper.  What  other  special 
powers  has  he  ?  He  receives  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers,  sees  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed,  and  com- 
missions all  officers  of  the  United  States.  Can  he  be  removed 
from  office  ?  He  may,  on  impeachment  for  conviction  of  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  The  same 
applies  to  the  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers.  What  do 
we  mean  by  the  judicial  department?  The  judicial  is  that 
power  which  interprets  and  pronounces  the  laws,  and  which,  by 
deciding  controversies  and  enforcing  rights,  prevents  the  exercise 
of  absolute  and  despotic  will.  How  is  this  power  vested  ?  In 
one  Supreme  Court,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  may  be  estab- 
lished or  ordained  by  Congress.  How  are  the  judges  appointed  ? 
By  the  President,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate.  How 
long  do  they  hold  office  ?  For  hfe,  or  during  their  good 
behavior.  Do  they  receive  a  compensation  ?  They  do ;  and 
the  same  cannot  be  diminished  while  they  continue  in  office. 
To  what  does  their  power  extend  ?  To  all  criminal  and  civil 
cases  in  law  or  equity  arising  under  the  Constitution,  or  the 
treaties,  or  laws  of  the  United  States,  embracing  those  affecting 
'  public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  all  questions  demanding  legal 
investigation  of  a  maritime  nature.  What  is  meant  by  maritime 
offences  ?  This  embraces  acts  or  offences  on  the  high  seas, 
where,  in  the  absence  of  jurisdiction  of  any  particular  nation, 
the  rights  are  common.  What  other  powers  has  the  judiciary  ? 
The  decision  of  controversies  between  two  or  more  states,  or  one 
state  and  citizens  of  another,  and  in  certain  contingencies  between 
citizens  of  the  same  state.  What  is  the  form  of  trial  for  crimes  ? 
^y  j^n^»  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  and  in  that  state  wherte 
the  offence  may  have  been  committed.  What  is  treason  against 
the  United  States  ?  Carrying  on  war  against  them,  or  giving  aid 
and  comfort  to  their  enemies.  What  is  necessary  to  convict  a 
person  of  treason?  Two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  a  con- 
fession in  open  court.  What  is  the  punishment  for  treason  ?  It  is 
regulated  by  Congress.  In  what  does  this  differ  from  the  Enghsh 
law  ?  No  attainder  of  treason  affects  the  children  or  heirs,  nor 
does  the  forfeiture  extend  beyond  the  life  of  the  party  convicted- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


BOVEREIONl. 

Bpftia. 

France. 

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BOVEREIGM 

Ens^Iaoa 


1492.  Columbus  discovers  America. 

1497.  The  Cabots  discover  the  continent  at  Labra- 

dor. 

1498.  Columbus  discovers  the  continent  of  South 

America. 

1524.  Verrazano  explores  the  coast. 

1534.  James  Cartier  discovers  the  Guif  of  St.  Lait 
rence. 

1584.  Sir  W.  Raleigh  sends  two  vessels  to  Amer- 
ica. 


^        1585. 

1586. 
1587. 

1589. 

1602. 
1603. 
1604. 

1606. 
1607. 


1609. 


1613. 

1614. 

1620. 

(( 

1621. 
1622. 
1628. 
1632. 
1636. 
1634. 
1637. 
1638. 
1641. 


Raleigh  sends  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  who 
leaves  a  colony  on  the  island  Roanoke. 

They  return  to  England. 

Raleigh  sends  a  colony  by  Captain  White, 
which  is  lost. 

Raleigh  sells  his  patent  to  the  London  Com- 
pany. 

Gosnold  discovers  Cape  Cod. 

Henry  IV.  grants  Acadia  to  De  Monts. 

De  Monts  discovers  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
founds  Port  Royal. 

London  and  Plymouth  companies  established. 

Plymouth  Company  make  an  ineffectual  at- 
tempt to  form  a  colony  at  Kennebec. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  at  Jamestown. 

Captain  Smith  rescued  by  Pocahontas. 

Lord  Delaware  appointed  governor. 

Hudson  river  and  Lake  Champlain  discov- 
ered. 

Pocahontas  marries  John  Rolfe. 

Dutch  settle  on  Manhattan  Island. 

Commencement  of  slavery  in  America. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 

Treaty  with  Massasoit. 

Charter  granted  to  Gorges  and  Mason. 

John  Endicott  settles  at  Salem. 

Lord  Baltimore  obtains  a  grant  of  Maryland. 

Roger  Williams  founds  Providence. 

Settlement  of  Maryland  commenced. 

War  with  the  Pequods. 

Harv'ard  College  founded. 

New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  uulteu 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


215 


80VER1C1GNS. 


Bpa:n. 

France. 

Charles  II                  Philip  IV. 

.2 

1 

a. 

> 

X 

n 

J 

15 

Charles  III.                                        Ferdinand  VI. 

80VEREIGN& 

England. 


1G43.  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and 
New  Haven  unite  in  a  confrderacy. 


1664. 
1665. 

1682. 


1686. 

1688 
1689. 


1692. 
1697. 
1740. 
1744. 
1745. 
1748. 
1750. 

1752. 

1755. 

1756. 

1757. 
1758. 


1760. 
1763. 


1764. 
1765. 


1766. 
1767. 
1768. 

1770. 
1773. 
1774. 


Patent  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York. 
War  with  Philip,  son  of  Massasoit. 
William  Penn  settles  in  Pennsylvania. 
Founds  Philadelphia. 
Charter  of  Massachusetts  annulled. 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  appointed  governor-gen- 
eral. 
Revolution  in  England. 
Imprisonment  of  Andros  and  Randolph. 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  resume  their 

charters. 
Massachusetts  obtains  a  new  charter. 
Peace  of  Ryswick. 
Moravians  settle  in  Pennsylvania. 
War  between  England  and  France. 
Capture  of  Louisburg  and  Cape  Breton. 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Difficulties  of  the  Ohio  Company  with  the 

French. 
Washington  sent   to  remonstrate  with  the 

French. 
Braddock  defeated  and  slain. 
Dieskau  defeated  at  Lake  George 
War  formally  declared  between  England  and 

France. 
Massacre  at  Fort  William  Henry. 
General  Amherst  takes  Louisburg. 
Defeat  of  Abcrcrombie  at  Ticonderoga. 
Colonel  Bradstreet  takes  Frontenac. 
English  take  Fort  Du  Quesne. 
Victory  and  death  of  General  Wolfe. 
Surrender  of  Canada  to  the  English. 
Peace  of  Paris. 
War  with  the  combined  Indians  under  Pou- 

tiac. 
Duties  imposed  on  sugar,  molasses,  &c. 
Parliament  passes  the  Stamp-act. 
Patrick  Henry  introduces  his  five  resolutions 

into  the  House  of  Burgesses. 
First  meeting  of  the  Continental  Congress. 
Repeal  of  the  Stamp-act. 
Duties  laid  on  tea,  painters'  colors,  &c. 
Non-importation  agreement  entered  into  by 

the  merchants  of  Boston,  New  York,  &c. 
Affray  with  British  troops  at  Boston. 
Cargoes  of  tea  destroyed  at  Boston. 
Boston  Port-bill. 
Meeting  of  Congress  at  Philadelphia. 


SS 


S3 


si 

*?  3 


216 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


SOVEREIGNS 

Spain.        France. 


80VFREIGN& 

Enftand. 


1775.  Battle  of  Lexington. 
"       Americans   take    Ticonderoga    and  Crown 

Point. 
"       Second  meeting  of  Congress  at  Philadelphia. 
"       Royal  governors  driven  out  of  the  southern 

colonies. 
"       George  Washington  appointed  commander- 

*     in-chief. 
«       Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill. 
"       Benjamin    Franklin   appointed    postmaster- 
general. 
"       Defeat  and  death  of  General  Montgomery 
at  Quebec. 
British  evacuate  Boston. 


1776. 


1777. 


1778. 


1779. 


1780. 


1781. 


1782. 


Declaration  of  Independence. 

Aug.  27.  Americans  defeated  at  Long  Island. 

Dec.  26.  British  defeated  at  Trenton. 

British  defeated  at  Princeton. 

General  Herkimer  defeated. 

Battles  of  Bennington,  Brandywine,  and 
Stillwater. 

British  enter  Philadelphia. 

Battles  of  Germantown  and  Saratoga. 

Surrender  of  General  Burgoyne. 

Treaty  of  alliance  with  France. 

British  evacuate  Philadelphia. 

Battle  of  Monmouth. 

Arrival  of  a  French  fleet  under  D'Estaing 

Savannah  taken  by  the  British. 

Sunbury  taken  by  the  British. 

General  Provost  surprises  the  Americans  at 
Briar  Creek. 

Capture  of  Stony  Point  by  General  Wayne. 

Repulse  of  the  J'rench  and  Americans  at  Sa- 
vannah. 

Surrender  of  Charleston  to  the  British. 

Arrival  of  a  French  squadron  under  Rocham- 
beau. 

Lord  Rawdon  defeats  General  Gates  near 
Camden. 

Arnold  endeavors  to  deliver  West  Point  into 
the  hands  of  the  British. 

Execution  of  Major  Andre  as  a  spy. 

Robert  Morris  appointed  treasurer. 

Morgan  defeats  Tarleton  at  the  Cowpens, 
South  Carolina. 

Battle  of  Guilford. 

British  evacuate  Camden. 

Surrender  of  Cornwallis  to  the  allies  at  York- 
town. 

Disturbances  among  the  officers  at  Newburg. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


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1783  Acknowledgment  of  the  Independence  of  the 
U.  S.  by  Sweden,  Denmark,  Spain,  and 
Russia. 

"  Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed,  and  the 
army  disbanded. 

"       British  evacuate  New  York. 

1786.  Meeting  of  delegates  at  Annapolis. 

1787.  Convention  at  Philadelphia  to  frame  a  con- 

stitution. 
1789.  Federal  constitution  adopted  by  eleven  States. 
"       Washington  inaugurated  as  President  of  the 
United  States. 
1794.  General  Wayne  defeats  the  Indians  in  Ohio. 
"       Treaty  concluded  with  Great  Britain. 

1797.  John  Adams  inaugurated. 
1799.  Death  of  Washington. 

1801.  Thomas  Jefferson  inaugurated. 
«       War  with  Tripoli. 

1806.  Great  Britain  searches  American  vessels  and 

impresses  American  seamen. 

1807.  Outrage  committed  on  U.  S.  frigate  Chesa- 

peake. 

"       An  embargo  laid  by  the  American  govern- 
ment. 
1809.  James  Madison  inaugurated. 

"  Embargo  repealed  and  non-intercourse  sub- 
stituted. 

1811.  Attack  on  U.  S.  frigate  President. 

1812.  War  declared  with  Great  Britain. 
"       General  Hull  invades  Canada. 

"       Hull  surrenders  Detroit  to  the  British. 

"  U.  S.  vessels  Wasp,  United  States,  and  Con- 
stitution capture  the  British  vessels  Frolic, 
Macedonian,  and  Java. 

1813.  Battle  and  massacre  of  Frenchtown. 
"       Capture  of  York  by  the  Americans. 

"  Devastations  of  the  British  on  the  shores  of 

the  Chesapeake. 

"  The  Chesapeake  captured  by  the  Shannon. 

"  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie. 

"  Battle  of  the  Thames. 

1814.  Battles  of  Chippewa  and  Limdy's  Lane. 
"  British  enter  Washington. 

"       Battle  of  Plattsburg. 

1815.  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

"       Peace  with  Great  Britain. 


1816.  National  Bank  established. 
19 


218 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


1817   James  Monroe  inaugurated. 

1818.  Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1819.  Alabama      "  "  " 

1 825.  John  Quincy  Adams  inaugurated. 

1826.  Death  of  Adams  and  Jefl'erson. 

1827.  Death  of  Monroe. 

1829.  Andrew  Jackson  inaugMrated. 
1832.  Cholera  breaks  out. 
"       Black  Hawk  war. 
1835.  Major  Dade's  massacre. 

1837    Martin  Van  Buren  inaugurated. 

1841    William  Henry  Harrison  inaugurated 
"       Death  of  Harrison. 
"       John  Tyler  becomes  President 


BOVEREIGNSl 
England. 

t-H   O 


ROMAN  KINGS  219 


AN  ABSTRACT 

OF 

THE  ROMAN  KINGS  AND  MOST  DISTIN 
GUISHED  HEROES. 

Romulus,  founder  of  tlie  Roman  state;  he  instituted  the 
senate,  which  at  first  consisted  of  100  counsellors,  and  he  di- 
vided the  people  into  three  tribes. 

Numa  Pompilius,  the  institutor  of  religious  ceremonies.  This 
amiable  man  was  with  difficulty  persuaded  to  accept  of  the 
kingdom  :  he  calmed  the  dissensions  amongst  the  citizens  ;  mod- 
erated the  warlike  iardor  of  the  Romans  by  the  impressions  of 
religion  ;  made  a  goddess  of  honesty  or  good  faith  ;  introduced 
Termini,  or  gods  of  boundaries;  and  distributed  the  citizens 
into  companies,  according  to  their  trades  :  the  temple  of  Janus 
was  not  opened  during  his  reign. 

Tullus  Hostihus.  In  his  reign  was  fought  the  battle  between 
the  Horatii  and  the  Curiatii.  Tullus  became  superstitious, 
studied  magic,  and  was  burnt  to  death  in  his  palace,  or,  accord- 
ing to  other  accounts,  was  assassinated. 

Ancus  Martins,  grandson  of  Numa.  He  built  many  fortifica- 
tions, and  greatly  improved  tlie  city.  He  vanquished  the 
Latins,  and  other  neighboring  states,  in  several  battles ;  and 
built  the  city  of  Ostia  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 

Tarquinius  Priscus.  He  increased  the  number  of  the  senate, 
and  built  a  magnificent  temple  to  Jupiter. 

Servius  Tullius :  he  enlarged  Rome,  and  added  a  fourth-tribe ; 
divided  the  citiaans  into  six  classes ;  instituted  the  census  or 
valuation  of  estates  ;  the  lustrum,  or  expiatory  sacrifice,  every 
fifth  year,  and  coined  money :  he  was  slain  by  order  of  Tarquin 
the  Proud,  after  a  useful  reign. 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  the  last  of  the  kings  :  he  was  dethroned, 
and  expelled  Rome,  on  account  of  his  enormous  vices.  He 
subdued  the  Volsci  and  Sabines,  and  became  master  of  Gabii 
by  a  cruel  stratagem.  In  this  reign  the  Sibylline  books  were 
purchased  ;  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  built ;  the  Circus 
Maximus  completed,  and  the  city  adorned  with  public  bmldings. 

Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  the  first  consul :  he  brought  his  own 
sons  to  justice  for  a  conspiracy  in  favor  of  Tarquin, 


220  TITUS  LARTIUS — CURIUS  DENTATUS. 

Titus  Lartius,  the  first  dictator :  'this  officer  enjoyed  absolute 
power,  and  was  only  created  on  emergencies. 

Menenius  Agrippa.  In  his  time  the  first  tribunes  were  chosen 
He  was  famed  for  his  eloquence. 

Caius  Marcius  Coriolanus :  he  was  unjustly  banished  Rome, 
and  returned  with  an  army  of  Volscians  to  besiege  it,  but  his 
mother's  entreaties  prevailed  upon  him  to  spare  the  city ;  after 
which  he  was  assassmated  by  the  Volsci.  In  his  time  the  first 
ediles  were  chosen. 

Terentius  Arsa  :  he  was  a  famous  tribune,  and  active  friend 
of  the  people. 

Lucius  Quintius  Cincinnatus ;  a  celebrated  dictator,  taken  from 
the  plough  to  command  the  Roman  armies.  In  his  time  the 
decemviri  were  appointed. 

Virginius,  a  centurion  in  the  Roman  army.  In  his  time  the 
unjust  and  abused  authority  of  the  decemviri  was  abolished. 
He  killed  his  own  daughter,  Virginia,  to  prevent  her  falUng  a 
sacrifice  to  the  villany  of  Appius  Claudius. 

Marcus  Manlius,  the  brave  defender  and  saviour  of  the  capitol, 
in  the  war  with  Brennus,  king  of  the  Gauls.  The  enemy  were 
attempting  to  scale  the  ramparts,  but  were  discovered  by  the 
sentinel  hearing  the  cackling  of  some  geese,  and  repulsed  by 
Manlius.  This  patriot  was  at  last  unpopular,  and  condemned 
to  be  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

Camillus,  a  renowned  general,  three  times  dictator :  he  led 
the  Romans  on  to  victory,  and  compelled  the  Gauls  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Rome. 

Marcus  Curtius,  a  young  patrician,  famed  for  throVing  him- 
self down  the  gulf;  he  was  urged  to  this  act  by  an  obscure 
answer  of  the  augurs,  which  declared  "  that  the  gulf  would  not 
close  until  the  most  precious  thing  in  Rome  was  thrown  into  it ;" 
Curtius  supposing  military  virtue  to  be  alluded  to,  cast  himself 
all  armed  into  it,  upon  which  the  chasm  is  said  to  have  closed. 

Manlius  Torquatus ;  he  put  his  son  to  death  for  contempt  of 
his  consular  authority,  and  as  an  example  of  military  justice. 
The  great  Earl  of  Pembroke  displayed  a  similar  rigid  conduct 
in  the  Irish  wars. 

Fabricius,  one  of  the  poorest  and  most  virtuous  of  the  Ro- 
mans :  his  integrity  was  unshaken  amidst  every  attempt  of  King 
Pyrrhus  to  bribe  him;  and  his  noble  spirit  will  transmit  his 
name  and  merits  to  the  latest  ages. 

Curius  Dentatus :  a  hero  who  reduced  the  Samnites,  Sa- 
bmes,  and  others :  he  is  remarkable  for  leading  a  life  of  voluntary 
poverty. 


REGULUS AUGUSTUS  CiESAR.  221 

Regulus.  In  his  time  the  first  Punic  wars  began.  He  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Xantippus,  the  Lacedemonian ; 
and  sent  to  Rome  by  the  Carthaginians  to  obtain  peace  for 
them;  resolutely  refusing  to  compromise  his  country,  he  re- 
turned a  prisoner,  and  was  doomed  by  the  Carthaginians  to 
suflfer  the  most  cruel  tortures. 

Marcellus.  He  vanquished  the  Gauls  in  their  war  with  Rome ; 
and,  for  his  valor,  was  called  his  country's  sword. 

Fabius  Maximus ;  famed  for  his  wisdom,  prudence,  and  con- 
duct ;  he  has  been  styled  the  buckler  of  Rome. 

Scipio  Africanus,  the  great  conqueror  of  Spain  and  Africa ; 
and  the  successful  opposer  of  Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral, whom  he  defeated  at  Zama. 

Scipio  JEmilianus,  the  destroyer  of  Carthage.  He  shone 
equally  in  learning  as  in  arms. 

The   Gracchi,  the  friends  of  liberty  and  virtue;    they  en 
deavored  to  stem  the  rising  torrent  of  corruption,  but  fell  a 
sacrifice  to  the  attempt;  they  revived  the  Agrarian  law  of 
Licinius  Stolo,  forbidding  any  Roman  to  possess  more  than  500 
acres  of  public  lands. 

Metellus  Numidius;  famous  in  battle,  and  a  man  of  strict 
integrity. 

Caius  Marius ;  famed  for  his  msatiable  pride  and  ambition ; 
he  brought  great  calamities  upon  his  native  city  in  his  qiiarre 
with  Sylla.  He  subdued  the  Numidians,  the  Cimbri,  and  the 
Teutones. 

Sylla,  a  great  conqueror,  tyrannical  in  command  ;  but  he 
had  at  last  the  moderation  to  resign  all  his  dignities,  and  retire 
to  a  private  station.     He  was  the  implacable  enemy  of  Marius. 

Marcus  Tullius  Cicero ;  the  great  Roman  orator  and  philoso- 
pher, and  the  distinguished  friend  of  libert}'-. 

Pompey  the  Great,  a  brave  general,  but  whose  ambition  led 
to  his  country's  slavery  and  his  own  premature  fall. 

Julius  Caesar :  the  greatest  hero  of  his  time.  He  was  chosen 
perpetual  dictator  of  Rome ;  but  trampling  upon  the  liberties 
of  the  Roman  people,  fell  by  the  hands  of  assassins  led  by  his 
friend  Brutus. 

ISIarc  Antony  ;  the  friend  of  Caesar,  famed  as  a  general,  but 
still  more  noted  for  his  attachment  to  Cleopatra;  queen  of  Egypt. 

Augustus  Caesar;  the  first  Roman  emperor,  and  the  nephew 
of  Julius.  In  his  reign  the  Romans  enjoyed  peace ;  ind  JESUS 
the  long  promised  Messiah,  appeared  in  Galilee. 


19* 


222  THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  GRECIANS. 


AN  ABSTRACT 

OF  THE 

BIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MOST  CELEBRATED 
GRECIANS. 

Cecrops,  the  first  king  of  Athens. 

Theseus,  contemporary  with  Romulus,  and  a  king  of  Athens  i 
memorable  for  his  courage  and  conduct ;  he  killed  the  Mino- 
taur, a  monster  kept  by  Minos,  and  achieved  many  other  great 
exploits. 

Jason,  a  noble  Thessalian,  who  is  said  to  have  sailed  with 
forty-nine  companions  to  Colchis,  in  search  of  the  golden  fleece  : 
this  expedition  is,  however,  more  properly  in  the  region  of  fable 
than  true  history,  as  also  that  of  Theseus. 

Agamemnon,  generalissimo  of  the  Grecian  armies  at  the  siege 
of  Troy,  and  king  of  Argos  and  Mycenae,  in  the  Morea. 

Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens  ;  he  devoted  himself  to  death 
for  the  benefit  of  his  country,  which  was  immediately  after  gov- 
erned by  archons,  the  Athenians  conceiving  that  none  could  be 
found  sufficiently  worthy  of  his  throne. 

Cadmus,  a  king  of  Thebes,  and  the  inventor  of  letters. 

Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca  and  Dulichium,  and  one  of  the  wisest 
among  the  Greeks  :  Ajax  and  Achilles  joined  him,  and  the  col- 
lective force  of  the  Greeks,  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Lycurgus,  the  celebrated  Spartan  lawgiver ;  he  totally  new- 
modelled  the  constitution,  and  composed  a  code  of  jurispru- 
dence, selected  from  the  best  laws  made  by  Minos  and  others. 

Homer,  the  prince  of  poets :  supposed  to  have  been  bom  at 
Smyrna  ;  Hesiod  was  his  contemporary. 

Thales,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  Rstronomer,  geographer,  and 
geometrician. 

Draco,  the  rigid  legislator  of  Athens ;  he  punished  all  of- 
fences indiscriminately ;  his  laws  are  said  to  have  been  written 
in  characters  of  blood,  from  their  great  severity. 

Solon,  the  wis6  reformer  and  improver  of  the  Athenian  laws 
iiis  principle  was  contrary  to  that  of  Draco. 

Alcseus,  and  Sappho ;  a  Greek  poet  and  poetess  who  wrote 
chiefly  in  lyric  numbers. 

Simonides,  a  famous  Grecian  poet. 

Pisistratus,  an  aspiring  Athenian,  who,  while  Solon  travelled 


THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  GRECIANS.  223 

into  Egypt,  took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  usurp  the  govern- 
ment of  Athens. 

^schylus,  a  Greek  tragic  poet. 

Clisthenes,  the  introducer  of  the  Ostracism :  he  was  endued 
with  great  penetration  and  abiHties,  which  were  seldom  prop- 
erly directed, 

Miltiades,  an  Athenian  general,  who  gained  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  fought  against  the  Persians. 

Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton :  two  young  Athenians,  who  de- 
livered their  countiy  from  the  tyranny  of  the  sons  of  Pisistra- 
tus,  and  were  honored  with  high  marks  of  esteem  and  admi- 
ration. 

Anacreon,  of  Teos,  a  celebrated  poet :  his  works  are  distin- 
guished by  their  elegance  and  simplicity  of  expression. 

Leonidas,  the  Spartan  king,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae, in  defence  of  his  country's  dearest  rights,  fighting 
against  the  Persians. 

Themistocles,  an  Athenian  general,  famed  for  his  valor  and 
address ;  he  gained  the  signal  victory  at  Salamis ;  but  being 
afterwards  banished  by  his  ungrateful  countrymen,  he  sought 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia ;  and  soon  after,  to 
avoid  bearing  arms  against  the  Athenians,  poisoned  himself. 

Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  two  Grecian  poets. 

Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  a  famous  general :  he  too  was  ban- 
ished, but  at  the  expiration  of  five  years  returned  to  Athens, 
and  his  gallant  spirit  forgetting  former  injuries,  he  once  more 
animated  the  Greeks  to  fame  and  conquest. 

Pericles,  an  Athenian  general,  celebrated  for  his  love  of  the 
fine  arts ;  the  age  in  which  he  flourished  is  called  that  of  lux- 
ury, as  he  introduced  a  taste  for  expensive  pleasures  at  Athens. 
In  his  time  began  the  famous  Peloponnesian  war. 

Lysander,  the  renowned  Spartan  conqueror  of  Athens ;  the 
treasures  which  he  then  brought  to  Lacedsemon  insensibly  cor- 
rupted the  pure  morals  of  its  citizens. 

Alcibiades,  a  brave  Athenian,  who  had  some  splendid  dr- 
tues,  counterbalanced  by  great  vices ;  his  character  was  pecu- 
liarly magnificent  and  ostentatious.  He  was  killed  by  command 
of  the  thirty  tyrants.  He  took  arms  for  the  first  time  at  the 
battle  of  Potidaea,  where  Socrates  fought  at  his  side,  defended 
him,  and  led  him  out  of  danger  after  being  wounded. 

Thrasybulus,  the  Athenian  who  overturned  the  power  of  the 
thirty  tyrants,  and  restored  peace  to  his  bleeding  country. 

Xenophon,  a  warrior  and  historian.  He  wrote  the  biography 
of  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  has  left  an  account  of  the  retreat  of  the 


224 


THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  GRECIANS 


ten  thousand  Greeks  from  Asia,  which  himself  conducted.  Tho 
first  of  these -works  is  called  the  Cyropede,  the  second,  the 
Anabasis. 

Socrates,  an  Athenian  philosopher,  whose  mind  being  too 
enlightened  for  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  the  Athenians 
falsely  accused  him  of  disrespect  to  their  gods,  and  he  soon 
fell  a  martyr  to  their  suspicion  and  vengoance,  being  condemned 
to  take  a  draught  of  hemlock. 

Agesilaus,  a  Spartan  king,  who  gained  many  important  vic- 
tories: he  defeated  the  Persians  under  Artaxerxes,  and  op- 
posed Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas  in  the  Theban  war.  He 
perished  by  shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Libya. 

Pelopidas,  a  Theban  general,  who  rescued  his  country  from 
the  Spartan  yoke,  assisted  by  the  valor  of  his  friend  Epami- 
nondas. 

Epaminondas,  a  Theban  warrior,  who  joined  to  the  duties  of 
his  station  a  taste  for  philosophy  and  the  sciences.  He  gained 
two  celebrated  victories,  Leuctra  and  Mantinea ;  at  the  latter 
of  which  he  fell. 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and  father  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
He  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Chseronea,  and  obtained  various 
successes  against  the  Thebans  and  Athenians :  he  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Macedonian  Phalanx,  and  united  the  highest  tal- 
ents with  the  most  intrepid  bravery.  The  Greeks  chose  him 
their  general,  against  the  Persian  force.  He  was  soon  after 
killed  by  one  of  his  own  guards,  Pausanias,  a  young  Macedo- 
dian,  whom  the  Persians  hired  to  commit  the  act. 

Alexander  the  Great,  king  of  Macedon,  and  son  of  Philip,  a 
renowned  conqueror.  He  ran  a  rapid  career  of  what  the  world 
calls  glory ;  and,  after  defeating  the  Persians,  and  destroying 
their  empire,  he  died  at  Babylon,  as  is  supposed  from  the  effects 
of  a  fit  of  intemperance. 

Aristotle,  the  celebrated  philosopher,  the  tutor  of  Alexander. 
He  has  left  treatises  on  natural  history  and  metaphysics. 

Demosthenes,  the  Grecian  orator,  ^schines  was  his  con- 
temporary and  rival. 

Pyrrhus,  a  king  of  Epirus.  He  conquered  Macedonia  from 
the  successors  of  Alexander.  His  life  was  one  continued  scene 
of  war  and  tumult. 


MYTHOLOGY.  225 


OF  MYTHOLOGY  IN  GENERAL. 

What  is  mythology  ?  Mythology  is  the  fabulous  history  of 
the  pagan  divinities ;  it  takes  its  name  from  two  Greek  words, 
{inythos  and  logos,)  which  signify  fabulous  history.  How  can 
you  divide  fabulous  history  ?  It  can  be  divided  into  historical, 
philosophical,  allegorical,  and  moral  fables.  What  do  you 
understand  by  historical  fables  ?  Ancient  history,  mingled  with 
fiction,  where  tradition  informs  us  of  the  events  which  have 
occurred  in  the  earhest  ages.  It  is  probable  that  Jupiter,  Apollo, 
Bacchus,  Hercules,  &c.,  have  existed,  and  that  their  histories 
are  founded  on  facts.  Give  some  examples.  The  deluge  of 
Deucalion  is  evidently  taken  from  the  Noacian  deluge ;  the  fable 
of  the  giants  who  wished  to  climb  to  Heaven,  brings  to  our 
minds  the  sacrilegious  plan  formed  by  man,  in  building  the 
tower  of  Babel,  &c.  What  do  you  understand  by  philosophical 
fables  ?  They  were  invented  by  the  poets ;  and  present  us 
with  many  fables,  under  which  are  hidden  useful  truths.  This 
kind  of  fable  is  most  frequently  the  method  of  speaking  figura- 
tively and  metaphysically,  and  which,  by  insensible  degrees, 
was  taken  in  a  literal  sense.  Give  some  examples.  Ocean, 
says  the  fable,  was  the  father  of  streams  ;  the  moon  espoused 
the  air,  and  became  the  mother  of  the  dew.  What  can  be 
more  philosophical  than  the  sublime  idea  of  the  Furies  having 
sprung  from  the  blood  of  a  father  shed  by  his  son,  of  Coelus 
murdered  by  Saturn  ? 

What  are  allegorical  fables  ?  They  are  a  species  of  parable 
concealing  some  mystic  idea,  or  offering  an  ingenious  emblem 
Give  an  example.  Ceyx  and  Alcyon,  changed  into  the  birds 
called  Halcyons,  is  a  touching  image  of  conjugal  love.  Th<f 
power  of  eloquence  and  music  is  evident  in  the  fable  of  Or- 
pheus, whose  voice  charmed  beasts  and  softened  rocks.  What 
do  you -understand  by  moral  fables?  They  contain  precepts 
and  examples  for  conduct  in  life.  What  can-*  convey  a  better 
moral  than  the  ancient  behef,  that  the  stars  were  sent  by  Ju- 
piter, on  earth,  to  watch  over  the  actions  of  human  beings! 
Give  some  further  examples.  The  Furies  devouring  Orestes, 
the  Vulture  tearing  the  entrails  of  Prometheus,  are  striking 
pictures  of  remorse :  Medusa,  whose  look  alone  could  convert 
to  stone,  depicts  the  ravages  of  passion,  while  Narcissus  is  a 
perfect  representation  of  those  who,  from  silly  vanity,  can  only 
admire  themselves.     Has  not  poetry  encouraged  these  fables  ? 


226  MYTHOLOGY. 

Yes  ;  for  it  has  peopled  the  universe  with  fantastic  beings  ;  and 
by  its  fictions,  shepherds  became  satyrs ;  shepherdesses,  nymphs ; 
men  on  horseback,  centaurs ;  oranges  were  golden  apples,  &c. 
What  was  the  origin  of  idolatry  and  fable  ?  Men,  having  by 
degrees  lost  the  knowledge  of  the  only  true  God  and  his  worship, 
turned  their  adoration  towards  visible  objects:  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  stars,  were  the  first  objects  of  worship.  Afterwards 
they  adored  as  gods,  animals,  plants,  &c.  Did  they  not  deify 
men  ?  Yes,  altars  were  raised  to  celebrated  men,  and  to  those 
who  were  the  benefactors  of  the  human  race.  Gratitude  deified 
famous  warriors,  artists  of  genius,  the  first  instructors  of  man,  &c. 
Thus,  Esculapius,  who  excelled  in  medicine,  was  represented  as 
the  son  of  Apollo  ;  Bacchus,  who  taught  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine,  as  the  god  of  wine,  <fec.  The  taste  of  man  for  the  marvellous 
did  the  rest.  Had  not  every  country  its  own  divinities  ?  There 
was  no  place  in  the  world  without  the  protection  of  some  par- 
ticular deity.  To  quote  the  words  of  the  eloquent  Bossuet, 
"Every  thing  w^as  a  god,  except  God  himself."  Where  did 
idolatry  and  fable  first  spring  up?  According  to  generally 
received  opinion,  Egypt  and  Phoenicia  were  the  cradles  of  idola- 
try and  fable ;  thence  they  passed  to  the  west,  where  they  were 
adopted  by  the  Greeks,  who  embellished  and  transmitted  them 
to  the  Romans.  These  last  collected  in  one  temple,  called  the 
Pantheon,  all  the  divinities  of  different  countries,  and  by  the 
power  of  their  arms,  carried  the  worship  of  these  false  gods  to 
the  extremity  of  the  then  known  world.  Were  there  many 
gods  according  to  mythology  ?  The  ancients  counted  more 
than  300  Jupiters,  and  at  least  30  Hercules' ;  and  Juvenal 
represents  Atlas  as  groaning  beneath  the  weight  of  Heaven, 
from  the  number  of  the  gods  who  were  placed  there.  How 
many  orders  of  gods  were  there  ?  Three  ;  the  first  comprising 
the  supreme  deities,  who  were  considered  as  the  masters  of  the 
other  gods  :  there  were  twenty  of  these.  Who  were  the  gods 
of  secondary  rank?  They  comprised  the  inferior  gods,  who 
presided  over  the  fields,  forests,  streams,  fountains,  flowers,  &c. 
Such  as  Pan,  Flora,  Pomona,  Vertumnus,  Pallas,  &c.  Who 
were  of  the  third  order  ?  In  this  were  placed  the  demi-gods  ; 
that  is,  all  the  divinities  who  had  a  human  father  or  mother. 
Such  as  Hercules,  Esculapius,  Castor,  and  Pollux,  &c.  Among 
these  were  also  placed  the  heroes  who  had  attamed  immortahty, 
Euch  as  Achilles,  Hector,  Ulysses,  &c. 


MYTHOLOGY.  227 

DIVINITIES  OF  THE  FIRST  RANK. 

Which  were  said  to  be  the  gods  of  the  highest  rank  ?  They 
inhabited  the  heavens,  where  they  held  supreme  authority  over 
tlie  earth,  sea,  and  infernal  regions.  These  were  Jupiter,  Juno, 
Neptune,  Ceres,  Mercury,  Minerva,  Cybele,  Apollo,  Diana, 
Venus,  Mars,  and  Vulcan.  What  was  Destiny  ?  A  blind  god 
dess  ;  born,  says  Hesiod,  of  Chaos  and  Night.  What  was 
Chaos  ?  According  to  the  Pagans,  Chaos  was  a  mass  of  un- 
formed matter,  in  which  all  the  elements  were  mixed  up,  and 
confounded  together  before  the  creation.  What  should  we 
understand  by  the  name  Destiny  ?  According  to  the  heathens, 
that  chance,  by  which  every  thing  occurs  in  this  world;  but 
Christians  know  that  nothing  occurs  by  clmnce,  and  therefore 
we  must  not  understand  it  in  this  manner,  but  only  as  applying 
to  the  behef  of  the  Pagans.  Were  the  other  gods  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  laws  of  Destiny  ?  Yes ;  even  Jupiter,  the  king 
of  the  gods,  consulted  her,  but  could  not  influence  her  im- 
mutable decrees.  How  is  Destiny  represented  ?  With  a  band- 
age over  the  eyes,  beneath  her  feet  a  globe,  on  her  head  a 
crown,  surmounted  by  stars,  and  a  sceptre,  the  symbol  of 
sovereign  power :  she  holds  in  her  hand  sometimes  an  urn,  and 
sometimes  a  book,  containing  the  fate  of  mortals.  What  of 
Coelus?  Ccelus  is  supposed  to  be  a  deity  as  old  as  Destiny. 
The  poets  also  call  him  Uranus,  and  suppose  that  he  wedded 
his  sister,  the  earth,  called  also  Vesta.  Who  were  the  children 
of  Uranus  and  Terra,  or  the  earth  ?  Three  divinities,  cele- 
brated in  the  history  of  paganism,  Saturn,  Titan,  and  Cybele. 

How  did  Saturn  obtain  the  highest  power?  Titan,  being 
the  elder  brother,  should  havi  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  the 
earth,  but  he  yielded  his  right  to  Saturn,  on  condition  that  his 
brother  should  never  rear  a  male  child.  Saturn,  faithful  to  this 
engagement,  devoured  his  own  sons  as  soon  as  born.  What  device 
did  Cybele  employ  to  deceive  Saturn  ?  Having  twins,  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  she  presented  her  daughter  to  Saturn,  and  hiding  Jupiter, 
gave  his  father  a  stone,  which  he  swallowed  instead.  Where 
was  Jupiter  brought  up  ?  In  the  island  of  Crete,  by  priests 
called  Corybantes.  He  was  nursed  by  the  goat  Amalthea.  To 
prevent  the  cries  of  the  young  god  from  reaching  the  ears  of 
Saturn,  the  Corybantes  danced  to  the  sound  produced  by  clash- 
ing together  steel  bucklers  or  shields.  What  course  did  Titan 
pursue  ?  Having  discovered  this  cheat,  and  seeing  with  grief 
that  his  sons,  the  Titans,  were  thus  excluded  from  the  throne, 
he  made  war  on  Saturn,  dethroned  and  confined  hira  in  prison 


228  MYTHOLOGY. 

with  Cybele ;  at  length  they  were  both  released  by  Jupiter 
How  did  Saturn  conduct  himself  towards  Jupiter?  Having 
leai-ned  from  Destiny,  that  some  day  Jupiter  would  dethrone 
him,  he  made  war  on  him  as  soon  as  he  was  released  from  pris- 
on. Jupiter  was  victorious,  and  fearing  that  his  father  would 
again  attack  him,  banished  Saturn  from  heaven.  Where  did 
Saturn  take  refuge  ?  Saturn  having  lost  the  empire  of  heaven, 
retired  to  a  part  of  Italy,  where  Rome  was  afterwards  built, 
and  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "  Latium,"  from  the  Latin 
word  "  latere,^  which  signifies  to  be  hidden.  Janus,  the  king 
of  the  country,  received  the  exiled  god  with  kindness,  and  even 
associated  him  in  the  government.  How  did  Saturn  evince  his 
gratitude  to  Janus  ?  He  endowed  Janus  wuth  extraordinary 
prudence,  by  means  of  which  precious  gift  he  was  enabled  to 
remember  past  events  and  foretell  the  future.  For  this  reason, 
Janus  is  fabled  to  have  two  heads,  or  two  faces,  one  of  which 
looked  constantly  at  the  past,  the  other  at  the  future.  He  also 
had  the  name  of  "Bis-frons,"  which  signifies  double-faced. 
What  is  the  time  of  Saturn's  reign  in  Italy  designated  ?  The 
Golden  Age ;  because  under  the  wise  administration  of  this  god, 
refinement,  virtue,  and  the  arts  were  honored  and  flourishing. 
The  succeeding  ages  are  called  the  Silver  Age,  the  Age  of 
Brass,  and  the  Iron  Age,  to  show  the  constant  growth  of  man 
towards  corruption.  What  honors  were  rendered  to  Janus? 
The  Romans  devoted  a  particular  kind  of  worship  to  Janus, 
who,  from  his  peaceful  reign,  was  considered  as  the  god  of 
Peace.  Numa  Pompilius  dedicated  a  temple  to  him  contain- 
ing twelve  altars,  one  for  every  month  in  the  year.  This  tem- 
ple remained  open  in  time  of  war,  and  shut  in  peace.  How  is 
Janus  represented  ?  Holding  in  his  hand  a  wand,  because  he 
presided  over  public  roads ;  and  a  key,  because  he  invented 
doors.  His  statue  has  sometimes  four  faces,  depicting  the  four 
seasons;  and  his  right  hand  is  frequently  marked  with  the 
number  300,  and  his  left  with  65,  to  denote  the  number  of 
days  in  the  year.  The  month  of  January  takes  its  name  from 
Janus.  How  was  Janus  addressed  ?  He  was  invoked  before 
any  one  of  the  gods  in  the  sacrifices,  perhaps  because  he  was 
the  first  to  erect  altars ;  or,  that  they  regarded  him  as  an  inter- 
cessor with  the  gods  for  mankind.  What  were  the  Saturnalia  ? 
The  feasts  of  Saturn.  They  lasted  several  days,  duiing  which 
time  joy  prevailed  ISiroughout  all  classes.  Every  year,  in  tlie 
month  of  December,  they  were  celebrated  in  Latium,  in  com- 
memoration of  Saturn's  abode  there.  During  the  Saturnalia. 
the  senate  was  not  assembled ;  the  public  schools  were  closed. 


MYTHOLOGY, 


22& 


friends  exchanged  presents,  and  the  rich  gave  sumptuous  en- 
tertainments. It  was  forbidden  to  execute  judgment,  or  to  un- 
dertake war.  Masters  served  at  the  tables  of  their  slaves,  to 
recall  the  liberty  which  all  men  enjoyed  during  the  reign  of 
Saturn.  How  is  Saturn  represented  ?  Saturn  is  generally  rep- 
resented as  an  old  man,  bowed  down  by  the  weight  of  years, 
holding  a  scythe,  to  show  that  he  presides  over  time  and  agri- 
culture. He  has  wings,  and  placed  near  him  is  an  hour-glass  : 
and  sometimes  a  serpent  with  its  tail  in  its  mouth.  The  hour- 
glass is  the  measure  of  time  ;  wings  denote  its  swiftness ;  the 
serpent,  forming  a  circle,  is  the  emblem  of  eternity,  which  has 
neither  beginning  nor  end.  Who  was  Cybele  ?  She  was  the 
sister  and  wife  of  Saturn,  and  regarded  as  the  mother  of  the 
gods  ;  and  for  this  reason  is  called  the  "  Great  Mother^  She 
is  also  called  Berecynthia,  Dindimania,  and  Ida,  the  names  of 
three  mountains  in  Phrygia,  where  she  was  worshipped  with 
peculiar  reverence.  What  other  names  had  she  ?  Ops  and 
Terra ;  this  word  signifies  the  earth,  and  is  derived  from  Cybele 
presiding  over  the  earth,  as  Saturn  reigned  over  heaven  ;  and 
tliat  of  Ops,  which  signifies  succor  and  riches,  was  given  to  her 
because  she  provided  all  good  gifts  for  mortals.  What  other 
name  ?  She  was  also  called  Rhea,  from  a  Greek  word  signify- 
ing "  to  flow,'''  because  all  things  ^o?^  or  issue  from  the  earth. 
She  is  also  called  Vesta.  Was  not  the  name  of  Vesta  given  to 
other  mythological  persons  ?  Learned  men  distinguish  three 
Vestas  ;  one,  also  called  the  earth,  the  wife  of  Coelus  and  mo- 
ther of  Saturn ;  the  other  called  Cybele,  was  his  wife ;  the 
third,  the  daughter  of  Saturn.  How  was  Vesta,  the  wife  of 
Saturn,  represented  ?  Vesta,  or  Cybele,  was  represented  as  a 
robust  and  powerfully  framed  woman.  An  oaken  crown  indi- 
cated that  man  was  formerly  fed  from  the  fruit  of  this  tree. 
The  towers  by  which  her  head  is  surmounted,  indicate  that 
cities  were  under  her  protection;  and  the  key  in  her  hand 
shows  tne  treasures  concealed  in  the  earth.  The  car  in  which 
she  is  seated,  d.rawn  by  lions,  is  the  emblem  of  the  earth  sup- 
ported in  air,  by  its  own  weight.  Her  dress  is  generally  green, 
from  the  verdure  of  the  earth.  She  holds  a  drum,  which,  being 
filled  with  wmd,  represents  the  storms  and  tempests  enclosed 
within  the  earth.  Over  what  did  Vesta,  the  daughter  of  Sat- 
urn, preside?  She  was  the  goddess  of  Fire,  which  is  indicated 
by  the  name  Vesta.  She  was  worshipped  in  Phrygia,  from 
whence  Eneas  carried  her  statue  and  worship  into  Italy.  Numa 
Pompilius  dedicated  a  temple  to  her,  on  which  a  fire  burned 
perpetually,  called  the  "  sacred  fire.''     Who  were  the  pr'est- 

20 


230  MYTHOLOGY. 

esses  of  Yesta  ?  They  were  six  young  virgins  called  Vestals, 
and  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  sacred  fire.  If  it  should  be 
extinguished  by  any  fault  of  theirs,  they  were  punished  severely, 
for  superstition  attached  the  -most  terrible  consequences  to  its 
extinction ;  and  in  such  case,  to  relight  it  no  common  fire  was 
used,  but  the  rays  of  the  sun  only.  They  buried  alive  those 
vestals  who  broke  their  vows.  What  were  the  feasts  of  Cy- 
bele  called  ?  They  were  called  the  "  megalisian"  feasts,  or 
games,  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  "great,''  because  they 
were  the  feasts  of  the  "  great  goddess."  At  Rome  these  feasts 
were  celebrated  by  the  Roman  matrons,  in  a  temple  which  was 
called  the  Opertum — that  is,  the  "  hidden  place  ;"  and  men  were 
not  permitted  to  enter.  Who  were  the  priests  of  Cybele  ?  They 
were  called  in  Latin  Gallii,  from  Gallus,  a  river  of  Phrygia. 
When  the  priests  drank  the  water  of  this  stream  they  became 
furious,  and  cut  themselves  with  whips  and  swords.  They 
were  also  called  Corybantes.  They  solemnized  the  feasts  of 
Cybele  with  great  noise,  mingling  their  cries  with  beating  of 
drums,  striking  their  shields  Avith  lances,  dancing,  and  shaking 
their  heads  with  frantic  gestures.  What  sacrifices  did  they  offei 
to  Cybele  ?  A  bull  and  goat ;  also  a  sow,  from  its  productive- 
ness. The  larch  and  fir  were  sacred  to  her  :  the  first  because 
the  priests  made  their  sacred  flutes  of  this  wood  ;  and  the  sec- 
ond, m  memory  of  Atys,  who  was  metamorphosed  into  this 
tree.  Who  was  Atys  ?  A  young  and  beautiful  Phrygian,  a 
priest  of  Cybele,  and  passionately  loved  by  that  goddess ;  but 
whether  from  inconstancy  or  disdain,  he  preferred  the  nymph 
Sangarida,  the  daughter  of  Sangar,  a  river  of  Phrygia.  The 
goddess  revenged  herself  by  putting  the  nymph  to  death.  Atys, 
in  despair,  killed  himself;  but  Cybele  taking  pity  on  a  mortal 
whom  she  had  so  tenderly  loved,  changed  him  into  a  fir-tree, 
thenceforA^  ard  dedicated  to  her.  Who  was  Ceres  ?  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Cybele ;  she  taught  men  the  art  of 
cultivating  the  earth  and  sowing  corn,  a  benefit  which  caused 
her  to  be  regarded  as  the  goddess  of  Agriculture.  Who  were 
her  children  ?  Ceres  had  a  daughter,  by  Jupiter,  named  Pro- 
serpine, and  by  Jason,  (the  only  mortal  she  ever  loved,)  a  son, 
Plutus,  the  god  of  Riches.  Relate  the  carrying  off  of  Proser- 
pine. Pluto,  the  god  of  Hell,  was  so  black,  and  his  kinguom 
eO  frightful,  that  all  the  goddesses  refused  his  love.  One  day  he 
saw  Proserpine  gathering  flowers,  with  some  of  her  young  com- 
panions, on  the  plains  of  Etna,  in  Sicily.  He  carried  her  off  in 
spite  of 'the  violent  opposition  of  Cyann,  a  nymph  whom  he 
changed  into  a  fountain.     The  god  having  opened  the  earth 


MYTHOLOGY.  231 

with  his  trident,  re-entered  his  dominions  with  his  prey.  Ce- 
res, inconsolable  for  her  loss,  entered  her  chariot  drawn  by  fly- 
ing dragons,  to  search  the  world  for  her  well-beloved  daughter. 
What  did  Ceres  then  do  ?  She  traversed  the  world,  and  in 
gratitude  for  the  hospitality  of  Celeus,  king  of  Eleusis,  she 
taught  his  son,  Triptolemus,  the  art  of  agriculture.  Whom  did 
she  change  into  frogs  ?  Passing  through  Lycia,  she  changed  the 
peasants  of  the  country  into  frogs,  for  having  disturbed  the  water 
of  a  fountain  where  she  wished  to  allay  her  thirst.  How  did  she 
revenge  herself  on  Ascalaphus  ?  Jupiter,  touched  by  the  grief  of 
Ceres,"  had  promised  to  restore  her  daughter,  provided  she  had 
neither  eaten  nor  drunk  in  the  infernal  regions.  Unfortunately  she 
had  taken  a  few  seeds  of  a  pomegranate,  and  Ascalaphus,  the  son 
of  Acheron,  informed  Jupiter  of  it.  Ceres,  irritated  by  this,  threw 
in  his  face  the  water  of  Phlegethon,  and  he  was  changed  into  an 
owl,  under  which  form  he  became  the  favorite  bird  of  Minerva. 
Relate  the  metamorphosis  of  Stellio.  Ceres,  fatigued  by  her 
travels,  and  being  pressed  by  thirst,  entered  the  house  of  an  old 
woman  named  Baucus,  who,  with  much  kindness,  offered  her 
refreshments  and  a  dish  of  soup.  Ceres  ate  with  such  avidity, 
that  young  Stellio  could  not  avoid  laughing ;  the  offended  god- 
dess threw  the  remainder  of  the  soup  into  his  face,  and  changed 
him  into  a  lizard.  How  did  she  at  length  find  her  daughter  ? 
Having  travelled  over  the  whole  earth  without  being  able  to 
ascertain  the  fate  of  her  child,  she  returned  to  Sicily,  where  the 
nymph  Arethusa  informed  her  that  her  daughter  was  the  wife 
of  Pluto,  and  queen  of  hell.  Ceres  then  again  appealed  to 
Jupiter,  who  promised  that  she  should  remain  six  months  of  the 
year  with  her  mother,  and  the  other  six  in  the  land  of  darkness. 
How  is  Ceres  represented  ?  As  a  beautiful  woman ;  her  head 
crowned  with  a  garland  of  wheat,  or  poppies,  with  a  full  and 
beautiful  bosom,  showing  that  she  is  the  nurse  of  the  hum^^.n 
race ;  she  holds  in  her  right  hand  a  bunch  of  Avheat,  and  a 
sickle,  and  in  her  left,  a  flaming  torch.  Her  car  is  drawn  by 
lions  or  serpents.  What  were  the  feasts  of  Ceres  called  ?  The 
feasts  of  Ceres  were  called  Eleusinian,  because  they  were  cele- 
brated chiefly  by  the  Athenians,  at  Eleusis,  a  city  of  Attica. 
It  was  forbidden  to  divulge  what  occurred  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  them.  To  reveal  the  secret  was  considered  sacrilegious. 
Entering  the  temple  was  forbidden  to  the  profane.  They  were, 
of  all  the  Grecian  solemnities,  the  most  celebrated  and  the  most 
mysterious,  and  are  known  as  the  "Eleusinian  mysteries." 
What  were  the  sacrifices  ottered  to  Ceres  ?  A  sow  or  a  wether. 
Wine  and  flowers  were  banished  from  her  altars,  with  the  ex« 


232  MYTHOLOGY. 

ception  of  the  poppy,  which,  by  procuring  sleep  for  Ceres,  gave 
some  comfort  to  the  unfortunate  and  desolate  mother.  How 
did  Ceres  punish  Eresichthon  ?  He  had  the  audacity  to  cut 
several  trees  in  a  forest  dedicated  to  Ceres,  and  she  punished 
him  with  unceasing  hunger.  Metra,  his  daughter,  beloved  by 
Neptune,  obtained  from  this  god  the  power  of  assuming  any 
shape,  hke  Proteus.  Her  father  sold  her  to  obtain  money,  and 
when  she  took  another  form  he  sold  her  again.  This  deceit  did 
not  procure  sufficient  food  for  Eresichthon,  who  died  devouring 
his  OAvn  limbs.  With  whom  did  Jupiter  divide  the  sovereign 
power  of  the  world  ?  Jupiter,  the  son  of  Saturn  and  Cybele, 
having  banished  his  father  from  heaven,  divided  the  empire  of 
the  world  with  his  brothers  ;  he  kept  heaven  for  himself,  gave 
to  Neptune  the  sway  of  the  ocean,  and  that  of  the  infernal 
regions  to  Pluto.  Who  was  his  wife  ?  He  married  his  sister 
Juno,  Was  his  reign  peaceful  ?  No  ;  it  was  soon  troubled, 
for  Terra,  the  wife  of  C  eel  us,  in  despair  because  Jupiter  to 
avenge  Saturn  had  condemned  to  Tartarus  the  Titans,  her 
grandsons,  incited  against  him  the  giants,  the  sons  of  the  Titans. 
These  were  men  of  uncommon  size  and  strength,  who  did  not 
even  fear  to  attack  the  sovereign  of  heaven.  Relate  the  story 
of  the  war  of  the  giants.  Determined  to  dethrone  Jupiter,  the 
giants  undertook  to  besiege  his  throne,  and  to  succeed  in  this, 
piled  Ossa  on  Pelion,  and  Olympus  on  Ossa,  (these  were  moun- 
tains in  Greece,)  from  whence  they  tried  to  scale  heaven, 
throwing  rocks  against  the  gods,  some  of  which  falling  into  the 
sea  became  islands,  and  others  falling  again  to  earth  formed 
mountains.  What  eflfect  had  this  on  Jupiter  ?  Frightened  at 
the  sight  of  such  powerful  enemies,  he  called  the  gods  to  his 
aid,  who,  being  alarmed,  fled  into  Egypt,  where  they  concealed 
themselves  under  the  forms  of  different  animals ;  and  this  is-  the 
origin  of  the  divine  honors  paid  to  many  beasts  by  the  Egyj.  • 
tians.  By  whom  was  he  assisted  ?  By  Bacchus,  who  was  more 
courageous  than  the  other  gods,  and  having  taken  the  figure  of 
a  lion,  fought  for  some  time  so  steadily,  encouraged  by  Ju- 
piter, who  constantly  cried  to  him,  "  Courage,  my  son,"  that  at 
length  the  giants  were  defeated.  By  some,  this  timely  aid  is 
attributed  to  Hercules.  What  was  the  fate  of  the  giants  ? 
After  their  defeat,  Enceladus,  the  most  powerful,  who  threw 
rocks  against  Olympus ;  Briareus,  who  had  a  hundred  hands  and 
fifty  heads,  and  Typhon,  or  Typhus,  who  was  half  man,  half 
serpent,  and  who  alone,  says  Homer,  gave  more  trouble  to  the 
gods  than  all  the  giants  together ;  were  buried  alive  by  Jupiter,— 
Typhon,  under  Ihe  Isle  of  Ischia;    Briareus  and  Enceladus, 


MYTHOLOGY.  233 

under  Mount  Etna.    The  poets  say  these  last  cause  earthquakes 
every  time  they  wish  to  change  their  position.    What  did  Jupi- 
ter do  after  this  ?    Finding  himself  in  peaceful  possession  of  the 
empire  of  the  world,  Jupiter  set  about  forming  man ;  Prome- 
theus, the  son  of  Japhet,  wishing  to  imitate  the  ruler  of  the 
universe,  made  several  statues  of  slime,  and  animated   them 
with  sacred  fire,  which  he  stole  from  the  chariot  of  the  sun. 
How  did  Jupiter  avenge  himself  ?     Irritated  by  the  audacity  of 
Prometheus,  he  commanded  Vulcan  to  chain  him  to  Mount  Cau- 
casus, where  a  vulture  constantly  devoured  his  entrails,  which 
were  as  constantly  formed  anew,  thus  continuing  the  torments 
of  the  unfortunate  Prometheus;    Hercules  at  last  killed  the 
vulture  and  released  him.     Tell  the  story  of  Pandora.     The 
other  gods,  offended  by  the  severity  of  Jupiter,  saw  with  sorrow 
that  he  intended  reserving  to  himself  the  right  of  creating  man, 
and  determined  among  themselves  to  make  a  woman,  on  whom 
each  of  them  should  bestow  some  particular  gift ;  thus,  Pallas 
endowed  her  with  wisdom,  Venus  with  beauty,  Apollo  with  the 
knowledge  of  music.  Mercury  with  eloquence :  they  then  named 
her  Pandora,  whicli  signifies,  made  by  gifts  from  all.     What 
present  did  Jupiter  bestow  upon  her  ?    Jupiter,  pretending  that 
he  wished  to  bestow  something  on  her,  presented  her  with  a 
closed  box,  and   desired  her  to  take  it  to  Prometheus,  who, 
fearing  some  treachery,  would  not  receive  either  Pandora  or  her 
box ;  but  Epimetheus,  more  foolish  than  his  brother  Prome- 
theus, received  Pandora  and  married  her.     The  fatal  box  was 
opened,  and  all  the  evils  and  crimes  which  have  since  deluged 
the  world,  and  which  were  there  contained,  escaped,  to  work 
evil  on  the  human  race.     Hope  alone  remained  in  the  box,  to 
comfort  humanity.     What  were  the  different  metamorphoses  of 
Jupiter?     Jupiter  loved  many  mortals  and  assumed  different 
forms  to  please  them.   He  transformed  himself  into  a  bull  to  carry 
off  Europa,  the  daughter  of  Agenorus,  who  had  two  sons,  called 
Minos  and  Rhadamanthus.     He  took  the  figure  of  a  swan  to 
deceive  Leda,  the  wife  of  Tyndarus,  who  had  a  son  Pollux,  and 
a  daughter,  Helen  ;  he  presented  himself  as  a  satyr  to  Antiopa, 
who  had  two  children,  Zethus  and  Amphion.     Under  the  form 
of  Amphictyon,  king  of  Mycena,  he  deceived  his  wife  Alcmena, 
and  she  had  a  son  Hercules.     What  were  his  other  metamor- 
phoses ?     He  changed  himself  into  a  shower  of  gold  to  corrupt 
Danae,  who  was  shut  up  in  a  tower  of  brass,  and  was  the  mother 
of  Perseus.     He  appeared  to  Semele,  the  mother  of  Bacchus, 
as  a  young  man,  and  deceived  Calista  under  the  form  of  Diana, 
Calista  was  the  mother  of  Areas.    To  Mnemosyne,  the  mother  of 

20* 


234  MYTHOLOG-X . 

the  nine  muses,  lie  appeared  as  a  shepherd.  Why  was  Penphas 
changed  into  an  eagle?  Periphas,  king  of  Athens,  from  his 
noble  actions,  was  honored  while  living,  as  a  god.  The  ruler 
of  heaven,  incensed  that  a  mortal  should  have  divine  honors 
paid  him,  was  about  destroying  him  with  a  thunderbolt,  but  at 
the  intercession  of  Apollo,  he  changed  Periphas  into  an  eagle, 
and  he  became  his  favorite  bird ;  and  to  him  Jupiter  confided 
the  care  of  his  thunderbolts.  What  became  of  the  goat  Am- 
althsea  ?  The  goat  Amalthaea,  who  had  suckled  Jupiter,  was 
placed,  with  her  two  kids,  among  the  Constellations.  The  nymphs 
who  had  the  care  of  the  young  god,  were  presented  by  him 
with  one  of  the  horns  of  the  goat,  which  produced  all  they 
desired;  and  this  is  the  one  known  as  the  horn  of  plenty. 
Why  was  Lycaon  changed  into  a  wolf?  Lycaon,  prince  of 
Arcadia,  who  was  the  first  to  sacrifice  human  victims,  carried 
his  cruelty  to  such  lengths,  as  to  put  to  death  all  the  strangers 
who  passed  through  his  dominions.  Jupiter  having,  in  the  course 
of  his  travels,  sought  a  night's  lodging  with  him,  Lycaon  pre- 
pared to  put  him  to  death  during  his  sleep ;  but  wishing  first 
to  ascertain  whether  Jupiter,  who  was  in  disguise,  might  be  a 
god,  had  served  to  him  for  supper  the  limbs  of  an  unfortunate 
victim  whom  he  had  murdered.  Jupiter  commanded  fire  from 
heaven  to  destroy  the  palace  of  Lycaon,  and  changed  him  into 
a  wolf.  This  fable  is  founded  on  the  cruelty  of  Lycaon,  and 
his  name,  which  signifies  wolf.  What  were  the  names  of  Ju- 
piter ?  The  same  Jupiter  has  different  names,  in  the  profane 
writers.  Dies  Pater,  or  father  of  days ;  Feretrius,  because  in 
his  temple  were  offered  the  spoils  of  the  vanquished  ;  Hospi- 
talis,  because  he  presided  over  the  rites  of  hospitality  ;  Stator, 
because  at  the  prayer  of  Romulus  he  had  prevented  the  flight 
of  the  Romans  before  the  Sabines  :  but  the  surname  under 
which  he  is  most  generally  known,  is  that  of  Olympus,  from 
the  moQntain  on  the  summit  of  which  he  resided  with  his  court. 
What  other  names  is  Jupiter  known  by  ?  In  Africa,  he  was 
honored  as  Jupiter  Ammon,  for  the  following  reason :  Bacchus 
being  at  the  point  of  death  in  the  Lybian  desert  from  thirst, 
implored  the  aid  of  Jupiter,  who  appeared  to  him  under  the 
form  of  a  ram ;  who,  striking  the  e&rth  with  his  foot,  a  stream 
of  water  gushed  forth.  In  gratitude  for  this,  Bacchus  dedicated 
a  temple  to  him,  under  the  title  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  Ammon, 
in  Greek,  signifies  dry  or  sandy.  For  this  reason,  also,  Jupiter 
is  sometimes  represented  under  the  form  of  a  ram.  What  kind  of 
worship  was  rendered  to  him  ?  As  holding  the  first  rank 
among  the  divinities,  his  worship  was  always  the  most  solemn 


MYTHOLOGY.  235 

and  the  most  universally  spread.  His  three  most  famous 
oracles  were  those  at  Dodona,  Lybia,  and  Trophonius.  The 
victims  generally  offered  were  the  goat,  sheep,  and  white  bull, 
the  horns  of  which  were  gilded.  Sometimes  only  grain,  salt, 
and  incense  were  offered.  What  tree  was  sacred  to  Jupiter  ? 
The  oak ;  because,  after  the  example  of  Saturn,  he  taught  men 
to  eat  acorns.  It  was  believed  that  the  oaks  of  the  forest  of 
Dodona,  in  Epirus,  gave  out  sounds,  which  were  the  oracles  of 
Jupiter.  In  the  temple  of  that  forest  he  was  worshipped  as 
Jupiter  Dodonian.  How  is  Jupiter  generally  represented  ? 
As  a  man  of  majestic  figure,  with  a  thick  beard,  seated  on  a 
throne,  holding  in  his  right  hand  the  thunderbolts,  and  in  his 
left  a  figure  of  victory ;  the  virtues  seated  by  his  side,  at  his 
feet  an  eagle  with  outspread  wings,  bearing  the  youth  Gany- 
mede. Were  there  not  many  Jupiters  ?  The  ancients  had  no 
limits  to  the  number ;  according  to  Varron  and  Eusebius,  there 
were  three  hundred.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  many 
kings  adopting  that  name,  and  for  the  same  reason  may  arise 
the  boast  of  various  nations,  that  Jupiter  was  born  among  them. 
Whose  daughter  was  Juno  ?  She  was  the  daughter  of  Saturn, 
and  married  her  brother  Jupiter,  by  which  means  she  became 
queen  of  heaven.  She  was  the  goddess  of  kingdoms,  and  pro- 
tectress of  marriages ;  she  presided  also  at  the  birth  of  infants, 
and  from  this  takes  the  name  of  Lucina.  How  many  children 
had  Juno?  Mars,  Vulcan,  whom  Jupiter  threw  from  heaven 
oecause  he  was  so  ugly,  and  Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth. 
What  were  the  occupations  of  Hebe?  She  poured  out  nectar 
for  the  gods  ;  but  having  one  day  let  it  fall,  during  an  assembly 
of  the  gods,  she  was  so  much  ashamed  that  she  could  never  be 
reassured.  Jupiter  then  gave  the  employment  to  Ganymede, 
son  of  Troas,  king  of  Troy,  whom  he  carried  off  on  the  back  oi 
an  eagle,  while  the  young  man  was  hunting  on  Mount  Ida. 
What  was  Juno's  character?  She  was  proud  and  haughty. 
All  the  women  who  were  beloved  by  Jupiter,  as  well  as  their 
children,  fell  victims  to  the  jealousy  and  fury  of  this  goddess. 
One  day  Jupiter,  wearied  by  her  vindictive  temper,  hung  hei 
in  the  air  by  means  of  two  loadstones,  having  an  anvil  to  each 
foot,  and  her  hands  tied  behind  her  back  with  a  golden  chain. 
Give  some  instances  of  the  jealousy  of  Juno.  Jupiter  being  in 
love  with  lo,  the  daughter  of  Inachus,  king  of  Argos,  to  protect 
her  from  the  anger  of  Juno,  he  covered  her  with  a  cloud,  and 
changed  her  into  a  cow.  Juno,  suspecting  something  wrong, 
pretended  to  admire  the  beauty  of  the  animal,  and  begged  her 
of  Jupiter :  no  sooner  did  she  obtain  possession  of  her  than  she 


236  MYTHOLOCr. 

intrusted  lo  to  the  care  of  Argus,  who  had  a  hundred  eyes, 
fifty  being  always  open  while  the  others  were  closed  in  sleep. 
Jupiter  commanded  Mercury  to  put  this  spy  to  sleep  with  the 
sound  of  his  flute,  and  then  kill  him.  Juno  took  his, eyes  and 
spread  them  over  the  tail  of  a  peacock,  or  changed  him  into 
that  bird,  which  she  then  took  under  her  protection.  What 
became  of  lo  ?  Juno,  being  still  more  angry  with  lo,  pursued 
her  with  a  gadfly,  which  stung  her  incessantly,  and  so  irritated 
the  unfortunate  princess  that  she  swam  across  the  sea ;  and 
having  traversed  the  earth  stopped  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile, 
where  Jupiter  restored  her  to  her  original  form.  The  Egyptians 
adored  her  under  the  name  of  Isis,  the  sister  of  Osiris,  and  it 
was  there  she  had  her  son  Epaphus.  What  other  eff"orts  of 
vengeance  were  exercised  by  Juno  ?  She  never  restrained  her 
vengeance,  her  jealousy,  or  pride.  It  is  well  known  what  evils 
were  wrought  on  Troy  by  the  preference  which  Paris  gave  to 
Venus  over  Juno.  After  Europa  was  carried  oS"  she  persecuted 
her,  and  even  the  descendants  of  her  brother  Cadmus.  The 
children  of  this  prince,  M elicestus,  Actaeon,  and  Penthea  perished 
miserably.  Semele,  his  daughter,  was  destroyed  by  the  sparks 
emitted  from  the  person  of  Jupiter,  when  he  appeared  before 
her  in  his  own  person.  She  loaded  Hercules  with  all  kinds  of 
labors.  Why  did  she  devastate  the  island  of  Egina  ?  To 
revenge  herself  for  the  love  which  Jupiter  entertained  for 
Asopia,  the  daughter  of  the  queen  of  that  country,  she  brought 
on  the  island  a  terrible  pestilence,  which  destroyed  all  the 
inhabitants.  Eacus,  the  son  of  Asopia,  besought  his  father 
Jupiter  to  repeople  the  kingdom ;  who,  commanding  an  ancient 
oak  of  the  forest  of  Dodona  to  produce  an  immense  number  of 
ants,  they  immediately  assumed  the  human  form,  and  accompa- 
nied Achilles  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  These  were  the  Myrmidons, 
so  named  from  a  Greek  word  which  signifies  a7it.  What  was 
the  employment  of  Iris?  She  was  the  messenger  of  JunO; 
who  loved  her,  and  made  her  her  confidant,  because  she  only 
brought  her  good  news.  To  reward  her,  she  placed  her  in 
heaven,  and  she  is  the  rainbow,  or  Iris,  the  harbinger  of  good 
tidings.  How  is  Juno  generally  represented?  As  seated  in  a 
car,  drawn  by  peacocks ;  she  has  a  sceptre  in  her  hand,  and 
her  head  crowned  with  lihes  and  roses ;  painters  also  place  a 
pt  acock  at  her  feet,  and  generally  place  near  her  a  rainbow, 
tlie  emblem  of  Iris.  Where  was  she  chiefly  worshipped? 
Throughout  Greece  and  Italy  were  found  temples  dedicated  to 
licr ;    but  she  was  chiefly  worshipped  at  Argos,  Samos,  and 


MYTHOLOGY.  237 

Carthage.     The  poppy,  dittany,  and  pomegranate  were  offered 
by  her  priests ;  they  also  sacrificed  to  her  a  female  lamb. 

APOLLO. 

Of  whom  was  Apollo  the  son  ?  Jupiter,  having  abandoned 
Juno  to  attach  himself  to  Latona,  daughter  of  Titan  Lacus  and 
Phoebus,  had  by  her  Apollo  and  Diana.  What  troubles  did 
Latona  experience?  Before  their  birth  the  jealousy  of  Juno 
roused  the  serpent  Python  against  Latona,  which  followed  her 
unceasingly.  The  Earth  had  promised  the  queeji  of  the  gods 
not  to  give  an  asylum  to  her  rival ;  Latona  was  on  the  point  of 
being  devoured  by  the  monster,  when  Neptune,  touched  by  her 
grief,  caused  the  island  of  Delos  to  rise  from  the  depths  of  the 
sea.  Latona  was  changed  into  a  quail  by  Jupiter ;  she  fled  to 
this  island,  and  gave  birth  to  Apollo  and  Diana.  Apollo  was 
sumamed  Delos,  from  his  birthplace.  Why  did  Latona  change 
the  Lycian  peasants  into  frogs  ?  One  day  as  Latona,  fleeing 
from  the  persecutions  of  Juno,  was  passing  over  Lycia,  some 
peasants  were  so  c>uel  as  to  refuse  her  a  Uttle  water  ;  Latona, 
to  punish  their  inhumanity,  changed  them  into  frogs.  What 
was  the  first  exploit  of  Apollo?  The  first  use  that  Apollo 
made  of  his  valor  was  to  wreak  vengeance  upon  the  serpent 
Python,  who  had  so  cruelly  tormented  his  mother.  The  god 
pierced  the  monster  with  his  sacred  arrows,  and  his  skin  served 
to  cover  the  tripod  upon  which  the  Pythoness  sat  to  deliver  her 
oracles.  The  Pythian  games  were  instituted  to  commemorate 
this  victory.  Relate  the  history  of  Esculapius.  The  triumph 
of  Apollo  was  disturbed  by  the  death  of  his  son  Esculapius, 
looked  upon  as  the  god  of  medicine.  He  had  made  great 
progress  in  this  art,  which  he  learned  from  his  father  and 
from  the  centaur  Chiron;  he  restored  the  life  of  Hippolytus, 
son  of  Theseus,  whom  some  cruel  sailors  had  torn  to  pieces. 
Jupiter,  looking  upon  this  resurrection  as  an  encroachment 
upon  his  authority,  and  besides,  excited  by  the  complaints  of 
Pluto,  whom  Esculapius  deprived  of  his  victims,  struck  the  rash 
physician  with  a  thunderbolt. 

^yhy  was  Apollo  driven  from  heaven  ?  Apollo  was  in  de- 
spair, but  not  daring  to  avenge  himself  upon  Jupiter,  he  shot 
the  Cyclops  who  had  forged  the  thunderbolts,  with  his  arrows. 
For  this  rash  act  Jupiter  drove  him  from  heaven,  and  deprived 
him,  for  many  years,  of  his  divinity.  What  became  of  Apollo 
m  his  exile  ?     Apollo  was  forced  to  gain  his  Hving  in  the  ser* 


238  MYTHOLOGY 

vice  of  Admetus,  king  of  Thessaly,  whose  flocks  he  watched 
Since  that  time  he  has  been  honored  as  the  god  of  shepherds. 
During  his  sojourn  in  this  country,  he  invented  the  lyre. 

What  was  the  metamorphosis  of  Daphne  ?  It  was  during 
the  exile  of  Apollo  that  Daphne,  daughter  of  the  river  Peneus, 
was  changed  into  a  laurel  by  her  father,  that  she  might  be 
freed  from  the  persecutions  of  this  god.  Apollo  tore  off  a 
branch  of  this  tree,  making  a  crown  of  it.  He  wished  that 
ever  after  the  laurel  should  be  consecrated  to  him,  and  become 
the  reward  of  poets. 

What  was  the  transformation  of  Hyacinth  ?  Apollo  had  a 
young  friend  Hyacinth.  One  day  w^hen  they  were  playing  at 
quoits  together.  Zephyr,  piqued  by  the  preference  which  this 
young  man  showed  for  the  son  of  Jupiter,  turned  the  quoit 
which  Apollo  threw,  from  its  course,  and  caused  the  death  of 
Hyacinth  by  it.  The  god  changed  his  friend  into  the  flower 
which  bears  this  name.  What  did  the  parents  of  Hyacinth  do  ? 
The  parents  of  Hyacinth  pursuing  Apollo  to  avenge  the  death 
of  their  son,  forced  him  to  retire  into  Troas,  where  he  found 
Neptune. 

What  did  Apollo  and  Neptune  do  ?  Apollo  and  Neptuna 
both  fled  to  Laomedon,  who  was  then  building  the  city  of  Troy. 
After  having  bargained  with  this  king,  they  labored  in  building 
the  walls  of  this  city ;  but  Laomedon  having  afterwards  refused 
to  pay  them  the  agreed  salary,  they  resolved  to  avenge  them- 
selves, Neptune  by  inundating  the  new  city,  and  Apollo  by 
ravaging  the  country  with  pestilence.  What  did  Laomedon  do 
to  terminate  his  troubles  ?  Laomedon  sought  a  remedy  for  so 
many  evils.  He  consulted  the  oracle,  which  answered  him  that 
he  ought  to  appease  Apollo  and  Neptune,  by  every  year  ex- 
posing upon  the  rocks  a  young  Trojan  girl  to  be  devoured  by 
sea-monsters.  What  new  misfortune  came  upon  Laomedon  ? 
The  lot  fell  one  year  upon  Hesione,  daughter  of  the  king. 
This  princess  had  just  been  chained  upon  the  seaside,  when 
Hercules  descended  to  earth  with  the  Argonauts  and  dehvered 
her.  What  was  the  end  of  Laomedon  ?  Laomedon,  who  had 
promised  some  invincible  horses,  so  light  that  they  could  run 
upon  the  waters,  to  the  liberator  of  his  daughter,  refused  them 
to  Hercules  after  his  victory.  The  hero,  roused  to  just  wrath, 
besieged  the  city,  killed  this  perjured  king,  imprisoned  his  son 
Priam,  who  was  afterwards  ransomed  by  the  Trojans,  and 
finally  gave  Hesione  in  marriage  to  Telamon,  king  of  Salamis, 
one  of  the  Argonauts.  How  did  Apollo's  disgrace  finish  ?  The 
%xile  and  troubles  of  Apollo  at  last  moved  Jupiter,  who  restoied 


MYTHOLOGY  23U 

him  his  divinity  with  the  attributes  which  characterized  it, 
and  intrusted  to  him  the  care  of  spreading  hght  over  the  uni- 
verse. By  this  attribute,  he  bears  the  name  of  Sun,  Phoebus, 
or  Father  of  Hght,  and  is  represented  guiding  the  chariot  of  the 
Sun,  drawn  by  four  fiery  horses  called  Ectron,  Pyrois,  Eaus, 
and  Phlegon.  Which  are  the  children  of  the  Sun  ?  Apollo 
had  several  children,  of  whom  the  most  celebrated  are  Aurora, 
Phaeton,  the  Heliades,  and  Linus. 

Relate  the  story  of  Aurora  and  Tithonus.  Aurora  married 
Tithonus,  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy.  She  obtained  immor- 
tality from  Jupiter  for  him,  but  she  did  not  think  to  ask  also 
that  he  might  have  the  privilege  of  retaining  his  youth.  Find- 
ing himself  borne  down  by  the  weight  of  years,  he  was  trans- 
formed, by  his  own  request,  into  a  grasshopper.  Who  was  the 
son  of  Aurora  ?  Of  the  marriage  of  Aurora  and  Tithonus  was 
born  Memnon,  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  assisted  Priam  in  the  Tro- 
jan war,  in  which  war  he  was  killed  by  Achilles.  His  death 
was  so  mourned  by  Aurora,  that  her  tears  produced  the  dew 
of  the  morning. 

What  birds  sprang  from  the  funeral  pile  of  Memnon  ?  The 
birds  called  Memnonides  rose  from  the  ashes  of  Memnon.  They 
separated  into  two  flocks,  and  fought  with  so  much  fury  and  stub- 
bornness, that  they  fell  near  the  funeral  pile,  hke  victims  sacrifi- 
cing themselves  in  the  ashes  from  which  they  had  arisen.  What 
honors  are  rendered  to  Memnon  ?  The  Egyptians  raised  a  sta- 
tue in  the  city  of  Thebes  to  Memnon.  It  is  said  that  when  the 
first  rays  of  the  rising  sun  fall  upon  it,  it  gives  forth  sounds  re- 
sembling a  harmonious  voice,  while  melancholy  notes  are  heard 
when  the  sun  leaves  to  enlighten  another  hemisphere.  Thus 
this  statue  seems  to  rejoice  at  Aurora's  coming,  and  to  grieve 
at  her  departure.  Who  was  Aurora's  second  husband  ?  Ce- 
phal-us,  whom  she  allured  from  Procris,  daughter  of  Erectheus, 
king  of  Athens.  Cephalus  being  afterwards  reconciled  to  Pro- 
cris, struck  her  accidentally  with  a  fatal  arrow  which  Aurora 
had  given  him.  Cephalus,  in  despair,  pierced  himself  with  the 
same  dart,  and  was  changed  into  a  star,  as  Procris  also  was. 
How  is  Aurora  represented  ?  The  ancients  represent  Aurora 
clothed  in  a  pale  yellow  robe,  a  torch  in  her  hand,  leaving  a 
palace  of  vermilion,  and  mounted  upon  a  fire-colored  chariot. 
Homer  describes  her  with  a  large  veil  thrown  back,  to  show 
that  darkness  is  dispelled  before  her :  she  opens  with  her  rosy 
fingers  the  gates  of  day.  Sometimes  she  is  represented  under 
the  form  of  a  yo\mg  nymph,  crowned  with  flowers  and  sitting  on 
a  chariot  drawn  by  Pegasus,  because  she  is  the  friend  of  poetat 


240  MYTHOLOGY. 

Relate  Phaeton's  adventure.  Phaeton,  son  of  Apollo  and 
Clymene,  daughter  of  the  Ocean,  had  a  dispute  with  Epaphus, 
who  upbraided  him  with  not  being  the  son  of  Apollo,  as  he 
boasted  himself.  Phaeton  complained  to  his  father,  and  asked 
him  as  a  proof  of  his  birth,  the  favor  of  being  allowed  for 
one  day  to  drive  the  chariot  of  the  Sun  :  Apollo  had  the  weak- 
ness to  consent  to  it.  The  horses  perceiving  that  they  were 
driven  by  an  inexperienced  hand,  turned  from  the  ordinary 
course.  At  one  moment  rising  too  high,  they  menaced  heaven 
with  an  inevitable  conflagration;  at  another  descending  too 
low,  they  drained  the  rivers  and  burned  the  mountains.  Tc 
whom  did  Terra  complain  ?  Terra,  burning  to  her  centre,  car- 
ried her  complaints  to  Jupiter.  This  god,  to  prevent  the  de- 
struction of  the  universe,  overwhelmed  the  son  of  Apollo  with 
a  thunderbolt,  and  precipitated  him  into  Eridanus,  a  river  in 
Italy,  now  called  the  Po.  Relate  the  metamorphosis  of  Phae- 
ton's sisters.  The  Heliades,  daughters  of  Apollo  and  Clymene, 
and  sisters  of  Phaeton,  felt  such  bitter  grief  at  their  brother's 
death,  that  they  wept  four  entire  months.  The  gods  changed 
them  into  poplars,  and  their  tears  into  grains  of  amber.  Cyc- 
nus,  a  relation  of  Phaeton,  came  to  weep  for  him  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Eridanus,  and  was  metamorphosed  into  a  stork. 
Who  was  Linus  ?  Linus,  son  of  Apollo  and  Terpsichore,  passes 
as  the  inventor  of  lyric  verse.  He  taught  Orpheus  and  Her- 
cules to  use  the  lyre.  Fable  says,  that  the  latter,  piqued  by 
too  severe  a  reprimand  from  him,  broke  his  head  with  his  lyre. 
In  what  city  did  Apollo  deliver  his  oracles  ?  Apollo  dehvered 
his  oracles  in  many  countries,  but  chiefly  at  Delphos,  where  he 
had  a  magnificent  temple ;  the  priestess  of  which  was  called 
Pythoness,  and  gave  the  answers  of  Apollo  seated  upon  the 
tripod,  which  was  covered  with  the  skin  of  the  serpent  Python. 
What  arts  are  attributed  to  Apollo's  invention  ?  Apollo  gave 
the  first  knowledge  of  arts  and  sciences  to  the  Greeks ;  and  be- 
sides music,  which  he  invented,  he  impressed  the  precepts  of 
morality.  He  was  also  particularly  honored  as  the  god  of 
poetry,  music,  and  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the  preceptor  of  the 
muses,  with  whom  he  dwelt  on  Parnassus,  Helicon,  and  Pindus. 
Parnassus  is  also  called  the  sacred  mount,  and  the  valley  it 
forms,  the  sacred  valley.  This  valley  is  watered  by  the  Per- 
messus,  a  river  which  rises  in  Mount  Helicon,  from  the  waters 
of  Castalia,  a  nymph  whom  Apollo  transformed  into  a  fountain, 
and  by  the  Hippocrene,  another  fountain  which  rises  in  Mt. 
Hehcon,  and  which  Pegasus  caused  to  spring  up  with  a  blow 
of  his  foot.     What  was  this  Pegasus  ?     A  winged  horse,  which 


MYTHOLOGY.  241 

was  born  from  the  blood  of  Medusa,  when  Perseus  cut  off  the 
gorgon's  head.  It  is  said  that  Apollo  and  the  muses  permit 
good  poets  to  make  use  of  Pegasus.  What  was  the  fate  of  the 
satyr  Marsyas  ?  Marsyas,  who  is  looked  upon  as  the  inventor 
of  the  flute,  had  the  rashness  to  defy  Apollo.  The  JSTycian*; 
were  brought  in  as  arbiters.  It  was  not  without  trouble  and 
peril  that  the  god  gained  the  victory  over  his  rival  in  the  art  of 
the  flute.  Indignant  at  such  resistance,  he  fastened  Marsyas  to 
a  tree  and  skinned  him  alive. 

Relate  the  history  of  Midas.  Pan,  also  had  the  temerity  to 
defy  Apollo,  pretending  that  the  notes  of  his  flute  excelled  the 
lyre  and  song  of  the  god  of  harmony.  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia 
and  friend  of  Pan,  was  chosen  as  judge,  and  yielded  him  the 
victory.  Apollo  revenged  himself  by  giving  Midas  asses'  ears. 
How  was  Midas'  misfortune  discovered  ?  Midas  took  great  care 
to  conceal  his  deformity,  and  hid  his  ears  under  a  magnificent 
tiara.  His  barber  perceived  it,  but  did  not  dare  to  speak  of  it. 
Weary  with  the  weight  upon  his  mind,  he  went  to  a  solitary 
spot,  and  making  a  hole  in  the  ground  he  bowed  himself  to  it 
and  said,  in  a  whisper,  that  his  master  had  asses'  ears ;  then 
closing  the  hole,  he  went  off.  Reeds  grew  upon  this  spot,  and 
when  agitated  by  the  wind  they  repeated  the  barber's  words — 
"Midas  has  asses'  ears."  What  gift  did  Midas  obtain  from 
Bacchus  ?  When  Bacchus  came  into  Phrygia,  Silenus,  wli^ 
accompanied  him,  stopped  at  a  fountain,  where  Midas  haa 
caused  some  wine  to  be  placed  to  attract  him.  Some  peasants 
finding  Silenus  drunk  there,  after  having  adorned  him  with 
garlands,  conducted  him  to  Midas,  who  received  him  magnifi- 
cently. Bacchus,  to  recompense  Midas  for  the  hospitality 
shown  his  grandfather,  promised  to  satisfy  his  most  ardent 
desire.  The  king  of  Phrygia  obtained  the  privilege  of  changing 
all  that  he  touched  into  gold.  But  Midas  had  cause  to  repent 
of  his  fooHsh  wish,  for  his  food  turned  into  gold,  and  he  was  in 
danger  of  dying  of  hunger.  What  advice  did  Bacchus  give 
him  ?  Bacchus,  touched  by  his  distress,  -advised  him  to  plunge 
into  the  Pactolus,  a  river  in  Lydia.  Midas  obeyed,  and  losing 
the  virtue  of  converting  every  thing  into  gold,  he  communicated 
it  to  the  Pactolus,  which,  ever  since  this  time,  rolls  golden  sand. 
There  are  many  other  fables  of  metamorphoses  made  by  Apollo. 

Relate  the  metamorphosis  of  Clytie.  Clytie,  one  of  the 
nymphs  of  the  ocean,  was  beloved  by  Apollo ;  she  allowed 
herself  to  die  of  hunger  from  jealousy,  when  the  god  abandoned 
her  for  Leucothea.  Apollo  metamorphosed  her  into  a  sunflower, 
or  heliotrope,  a  flower  which  follows,  they  say,  the  course  ol 

21 


242  MYTHOLOGY. 

the  sun.  Relate  the  transfonnation  of  Leucothea.  Leucothea 
was  the  daughter  of  Orcamus,  king  of  Persia ;  Apollo,  charmed 
with  her  beauty,  personated  her  motlier,  and  under  this  disguise 
gained  her  affection.  Orcamus,  informed  by  Clytie  of  the 
amours  of  his  daughter,  caused  her  to  be  buried  ahve.  Apollo 
watered  the  earth  which  covered  her  body  with  nectar,  and 
immediately  the  tree  which  bears  incense  started  from  it. 
Relate  that  of  Cyparisse.  The  young  Cyparisse  had  nurtured 
a  stag,  which  by  accident  he  kifled  ;  he  regretted  its  loss  so 
much  that  he  put  an  end  to  his  life.  Apollo  was  inconsolable, 
and  to  perpetuate  his  tenderness  for  the  child  he  changed  him 
into  a  cypress.  Relate  that  of  Coronis.  Coronis,  daughter  of 
Phlegias,  was  beloved  by  Apollo,  by  w^hom  she  gave  birth  to 
Esculapius.  But  he  being  informed  by  a  raven  that  Coronis 
was  unfaithful  to  him,  in  the  first  transport  of  jealousy  pierced 
her  with  an  arrow  and  changed  her  into  a  rock.  Apollo  soon 
repented  of  his  revenge,  and  to  punish  the  tattling  raven  he 
made  his  feathers,  which  were  formerly  white,  of  a  jetty  black. 
What  birds  were  consecrated  to  Apollo  ?  The  crow  and  the 
stork  were  consecrated  to  Apollo,  to  indicate,  by  theii*  difference 
in  color,  that  this  god  knew  all  that  the  days  and  nights  could 
produce.  The  raven  was  believed  to  have  a  natural  instinct 
for  predicting  future  events,  and  his  croaking  often  furnished 
prognostics. 

How  is  he  represented  ?  The  emblems  of  this  god  vary 
according  to  the  characters  he  represents.  At  Lesbos  his 
statue  held  a  branch  of  myrtle.  He  is  sometimes  seen  with  an 
applf ,  the  prize  of  "'^^he  Pythian  games,  in  his  hand.  When  he 
is  taken  as  the  sun,  he  holds  a  cock  in  his  hand,  is  crowned 
with  rays,'  and  traverses  the  zodiac  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four 
white  horses.  How  is  he  again  represented  ?  He  is  generally 
represented  in  ancient  monuments  as  a  beautiful  and  beardless 
youth,  with  long,  fair  locks,  crowned  with  laurel ;  at  his  feet 
are  the  emblems  of  the  arts,  and  he  carries  the  golden  lyre 
whose  wondrous  tones  enchanted  both  gods  and  men. 

DIANA. 

Whose  daughter  was  Diana  ?  Diana  was  the  daughter  of  Jupi- 
ter and  Latona,  and  sister  of  Apollo.  What  names  are  given  her  ? 
She  is  called  Luna  or  Phoebe,  in  heaven,  from  the  name  of  her 
brother  Phcebus ;  Diana  upon  earth ;  Hecate  in  hell.  Under 
these  different  names  she  is  the  same  divinity.  The  poets  also  call 
her  *^  the  goddess  in  three  shapes,"  and  "  the  triple  Hecate." 


MYTHOLOGY.  243 

She  is  more  generally  called  "the  chaste  Diana,"  because  she 
would  never  marry,  and  for  changing  the  hunter  Acteon  into  a  stag, 
because  he  had  tlie  boldness  to  watch  her  while  bathing  with  her 
nymphs.  Acteon  was  devoured  by  his  own  dogs.  Did  not  Diana 
love  young  Endymion?  Some  mythologists  say  that  Diana, 
the  celestial  divinity,  the  moon  or  Phoebe,  loved  the  shepherd  En- 
dymion, by  whom  she  had  fifty  children.  It  is  said  that  Jupiter, 
having  found  this  shepherd  in  Juno's  apartment,  had  condemned 
him  to  eternal  sleep,  always  retaining  his  youth.  Endymion  fell 
asleep  in  a  valley,  which  the  moon  often  shone  upon,  this  no  doubt 
gave  rise  to  the  fable  of  Diana  and  Endymion. 

Relate  Calisto's  history.  After  all,  the  severity  of  Diana  is 
much  less  uncertain.  Cahsto  was  the  favorite  nymph  of  this 
divinity.  Jupiter  became  enamored  of  her,  took  the  figure  of 
Diana,  deceived  her  thus,  and  by  her  had  a  son  named  Areas. 
Diana,  informed  of  Calisto's  fault,  drove  her  from  her  court. 
Juno,  more  vindictive,  changed  her  into  a  bear;  but  Jupiter 
carried  her  oflf  with  Areas,  and  placed  them  in  the  heavens ; 
where  they  form  the  constellations  of  the  great  and  little  bear. 
What  vengeance  did  Diana  take  upon  Niobe  ?  Diana  treated 
the  unfortunate  Niobe  with  much  more  cruelty — changing  her 
into  a  rock,  and  destroying  all  her  children ;  to  punish  her  for 
boasting  of  her  fruitfulness.  What  was  Diana's  occupation 
upon  earth  ?  Hunting ;  wherefore  she  is  considered  the  goddess 
of  hunters.  She  wandered  in  woods  and  forests  surrounded  by 
sixty  nymphs,  daughters  of  the  ocean,  armed,  like  her,  with 
bows  and  arrows.  What  was  the  most  famous  temple  of 
Diana?  Diana  had  a  famous  temple  at  Ephesus,  which  has 
been  classed  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world ;  and 
which  Erostratus  burnt  the  day  of  the  birth  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  while  Diana  was  occupied,  it  is  said,  at  the  bed  of  Olym- 
pia,  motlier  of  this  prince.  Erostratus  set  fire  to  this  temple  to 
render  his  aame  celebrated.  The  Ephesians  vainly  forbade,  by 
a  decree,  that  this  fool's  name  should  be  uttered.  What  wor- 
ship is  offered  her  ?  The  first-fruits  of  the  earth,  oxen,  heifers, 
and  white  stags,  and  sometimes  even  human  victims  were  sacri- 
ficed to  Diana.  Seconded  by  Iphigenia,  priestess  of  this  god- 
dess, Orestes  and  Pylades  carried  her  statue  off  into  Italy,  after 
having  killed  Thoas,  priest  of  the  temple.  How  is  Diana  repre- 
sented ?  Upon  most  of  the  ancient  medallions  she  is  seen  in  a 
hunter's  dress,  a  carcass  upon  her  shoulder,  a  dog  by  her  side, 
and  holding  a  bow  in  her  hand.  Poets  describe  her  also  as 
driving  a  cliariot  drawn  by  hinds  or  white  stags.  When  Diana 
is  taken  as  the  moon,  her  head  is  ornamented  with  a  crescent ; 


211  MYTHOLOGY 

a  troop  of  little  loves  accompany  her,  and  lead  her  towardi 

Endymion. 

BACCHUS. 

Whose  son  was  Bacchus  ?  Bacchus  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Semele,  daughter  of  Cadmus,  king  of  Thebes.  What  was 
Juno's  revenge  ?  Juno,  jealous  of  Jupiter's  attachment  to  Se- 
mele, took  the  form  of  Berea,  her  rival's  nurse,  and  persuaded 
her  to  exact  from  Jupiter  his  consent  to  appear  to  her  in  all  the 
wonder  of  his  glory.  Jupiter  resisted  for  a  long  time,  but 
yielding  at  last  to  the  solicitation  of  her  he  loved,  he  appeared 
in  the  midst  of  thunders  and  lightnings.  What  happened  then  ? 
The  palace  was  consumed,  and  Semele,  the  victim  of  her  indis- 
cretion, perished  in  the  midst  of  the  flames.  Jupiter  took  the 
child  from  her  and  kept  it  carefully,  calling  it  Bacchus.  Where, 
and  by  whom  was  Bacchus  brought  up  ?  It  is  said  that  this 
god  was  brought  up  near  the  city  of  Nysa ;  where  Mercury, 
as  soon  as  he  saw  the  day,  carried  him  to  nymphs,  daughters 
of  Atlas,  and  that  Bacchus,  in  gratitude  for  the  care  they  had 
bestowed  on  him  in  his  infancy,  changed  them  into  stars  called 
the  Hyades.  When  he  was  of  an  age  to  be  instructed,  the 
muses  and  old  Silenus  had  the  charge  of  his  education.  How 
is  Silenus  represented  ?  Silenus,  commonly  called  the  foster- 
father  of  Bacchus,  is  represented  in  a  complete  state  of  drunk- 
enness, sometimes  seated  upon  an  ass,  upon  which  he  can 
scarcely  hold  himself;  sometimes  walking  by  the  aid  of  a  stick 
or  thyrsus:  this  was  a  wand  twined  with  vine-leaves  or  ivy. 
What  were  his  exploits  ?  Bacchus  overran  the  earth,  and  con- 
quered the  Indies  with  an  army  of  men  and  women,  carrying, 
instead  of  arms,  wands  and  drums.  He  afterwards  passed 
into  Egypt,  where  he  taught  men  agriculture,  planted  the  vine, 
and  was  worshipped  as  the  god  of  wine.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  valor  shown  by  him  in  the  war  with  the  giants. 
Wlio  was  the  wife  of  Bacchus  ?  On  his  return  from  the  Indies, 
Bacchus  married  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete, 
whom  Theseus  had  abandoned.  He  presented  her  with  a 
golden  crown  enriched  with  precious  stones.  It  was  the  mas- 
ter-piece of  Vulcan.  After  the  death  of  this  princess,  her  crown 
was  placed  among  the  constellations.  What  feasts  were  cele- 
brated in  honor  of  Bacchus  ?  Feasts  in  honor  of  Bacchus  were 
celebrated  with  grsat  clamor,  by  priestesses  called  Bacchantes, 
or  Menades.  These  feasts  were  called  Bacchanals,  or  Orgies. 
Who  were  the  Bacchantes  ?  The  Bacchantes,  or  Menades, 
were  clothed  in  skins  of  tigers  or  panthers ;  they  wandered  over 


MYTHOLOGY.  245 

the  mouutains,  their  liair  streaming,  and  torches  or  wands  in 
their  hands.  What  was  Pentheus'  punishment  ?  Pentheus, 
king  of  Thebes,  prevented  his  subjects  from  celebrating  the 
feasts  of  Bacchus.  This  god  inspired  the  Bacchantes  with  fury, 
and  the  cruel  women,  among  whom  was  the  mother  of  the 
prince,  fell  upon  him  and  tore  him  to  pieces.  What  was  that 
of  the  Mineides  ?  The  Mineides,  daughters  of  Mineus,  king  of 
Thebes,  were  not  warned  by  this  example.  They  refused  to 
assist  in  the  feasts  of  Bacchus,  and  during  the  ceremony  disdain- 
fully pretended  to  be  employed  at  tapestry-work.  Their  house 
was  suddenly  illuminated  by  sparkling  fires,  which  sent  forth 
an  awful  roaring.  The  vengeance  of  the  god  reached  these  im- 
pious ones,  who  were  changed  into  bats.  How  is  Bacchus  rep- 
resented ?  Bacchus  is  generally  represented  with  horns,  sym- 
bols of  strength  and  power ;  or  in  remembrance  that  this  god 
drove  the  first  oxen  in  a  plough.  He  is  always  crowned  with  a 
vine  branch,  or  with  ivy,  with  the  features  of  a  young  and 
beardless  man  laughing,  to  show  that  wine  gives  the  vivacity  of 
youth.  He  holds  in  one  hand  a  bunch  of  grapes  or  a  cup,  and 
in  the  other  a  wand.  Sometimes  he  is  seated  on  a  bull,  some- 
times in  a  car  drawn  by  tigers  or  panthers,  and  sometimes 
drawn  by  Centaurs.  What  sacrifices  were  made  to  him  ?  They 
offered  the  magpie  to  Bacchus,  because  wine  makes  one  indis- 
creet; the  buck,  because  he  destroys  the  buds  of  the  vine. 
Among  fabulous  animals,  the  phoenix  was  consecrated  to  him  ; 
and  among  plants,  the  ivy,  which,  it  is  believed,  dispels  by  its 
natural  freshness,  the  fumes  of  wine.  What  is  the  opinion  of 
savants  about  Bacchus  ?  Almost  all  authors  believe  that  Bac- 
chus is  the  same  with  Noah,  who  planted  the  vine  and  taught 
men  to  make  wine. 

What  was  the  employment  of  Mercury  ?  He  was  the  son 
of  Jupiter  and  the  nymph  Maia,  the  messenger  and  interpreter 
of  the  gods ;  he  d>ected  their  enterprises,  mixed  himself  up 
with  all  intrigues  relating  either  to  peace  or  war,  and  that  lie 
might  the  more  swiftly  execute  the  orders  of  the  gods,  was 
furnished  with  ^vings  on  his  head  and  feet.  What  was  the  Ca- 
duceus  of  Mercury  ?  The  Caduceus,  which  is  represented  in 
Mercury's  hand,  is  a  wand  entwmed  with  two  serpents,  and 
surmounted  with  wings.  It  is  told  that  having  met  with  two 
Berpents  fighting,  he  separated  them  with  his  wand,  round 
wliich  they  twined  themselves.  The  Caduceus  was  regarded  as 
the  emblem  of  peace.  What  virtues  were  attributed  to  the 
Caduceus  ?  The  poets  attributed  great  virtues  to  it;  it  was  by 
the  aid  of  this,  that  Mercury  ronveyed  to  the  infernal  regions 
21* 


246  MYTHOLOGY. 

the  souls  of  the  dead.  No  one  could  die  until  a  stroke  of  the 
Caduceus  had  entirely  destroyed  the  ties  which  unite  soul  and 
body.  It  had  also  the  property  of  bringing  sleep  to  the  weary 
eyelids,  and  pleasant  dreams.  Was  not  Mercury  the  god  of 
eloquence  ?  Yes,  and  he  is  therefore  represented  with  a  chain 
of  gold  issuing  from  his  mouth,  to  signify  that  he  chained  all 
hearts  and  minds,  by  the  power  of  eloquence.  Did  he  not  pre- 
side over  trade  ?  Yes,  his  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a 
Latin  word  which  means  "  commerce.^'  As  the  tutelary  deity 
of  merchants,  he  is  also  represented  as  holding  a  purse  in  one 
hand,  and  in  the  other  a  branch  of  olive  and  a  club.  The  olive- 
branch  is  the  symbol  of  peace,  and  the  club,  of  strength  and 
virtue  ;  both  necessary  in  traffic.  Was  he  not  also  the  god  of 
thieves  ?  Yes,  and  several  robberies  he  committed  prove  him 
to  be  an  adept  in  the  art.  When  he  was  a  child  he  stole  Nep- 
tune's trident,  Apollo's  arrows,  the  sword  of  Mars,  and  the  gir- 
dle of  Venus.  This  is  an  allegorical  allusion  to  the  brilliant 
qualities  ascribed  to  Mercury.  How  did  he  carry  off  the  cattle 
belonging  to  Apollo  ?  He  was  in  his  cradle  when  he  robbed 
Apollo,  by  making  the  oxen  walk  round  and  round  until  their 
footsteps  were  so  confused,  that  the  traces  of  them  were  lost 
The.ljtngry  god  threatened  the  audacious  child,  but  Mercury 
softened  him  by  presenting  his  lyre  to  Apollo,  of  which  he  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor.  This  lyre  was  made  of  a  tor- 
toise-shell, strung  with  linen  threads.  Did  he  not  commit  other 
robberies  on  Apollo  ?  One  day  Mercury  stole  from  Apollo  his 
lyre,  and  the  flocks  of  king  Admetus.  The  shepherd  Buttus 
was  the  only  witness  of  this  theft,  and  Mercury  offered  him  the 
finest  cow  to  be  silent :  Mercury  then  retired  a  short  distance, 
and  reappearing  as  a  shepherd,  offered  him  an  ox  and  a  cow  if 
he  would  tell  him  where  the  flocks  Avere  he  was  in  search 
of.  Buttus  immediately  revealed  the  secret  which  he  had  en- 
gaged to  keep,  and  Mercury  changed  him  into  a  touchstone, 
which  has  the  property  of  proving  the  purity  of  the  metal 
which  it  touches.  VVhat  names  did  the  Greeks  and  Romans  be- 
stow on  Mercury  ?  The  Greeks  call  him  Hermes,  or  Inter- 
preter, and  the  Romans  Vialis,  because  he  had  charge  of  the 
highways.  Were  there  not  several  Mercuries  ?  According  to 
Cicero  there  were  five ;  one  who  had  the  gift  of  eloquence, 
another  ;;vho  was  a  learned  physician,  a  third  a  clever  merchant, 
&c. ;  and  that  they  were  afterwards  all  attributed  to  Mercury 
the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia.  Relate  the  birth  of  Venus.  Venus, 
the  goddess  of  beauty  and  love,  was  formed  from  the  froth  of  the 
lea ;  according  to  some  she  was  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and 


MYTHOLOGY.  247 

Dione,  an  ocean  nymph.  She  arose  near  Cyiherea,  whence  she 
was  transported  by  Zephyrus  to  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Whom 
did  she  marry  ?  The  Hours,  who  had  charge  of  her  education, 
carried  her  to  heaven,  where  all  the  gods  became  enamored  of 
her  beauty  and  demanded  her  in  marriage.  Jupiter  gave  her  to 
Vulcan  to  recompense  him  for  the  services  he  rendered  during  the 
war  with  the  giants,  Avhen  he  forged  the  thunderbolts  for  Jupi- 
ter. Thus  the  most  beautiful  goddess  became  the  wife  of  the  ug- 
liest among  the  gods.  How  many  children  had  Venus  ?  The  po- 
ets attribute  many  children  to  Venus.  The  most  celebrated  are 
Cupid,  or  Love,  Hymen,  the  three  Graces,  and  Eneas.  She  is  also 
said  to  be  the  mother  of  Laughter,  of  Games,  and  of  Pleasures, 
who  arc  all  represented  as  genii,  or  little  children  with  wings. 
How  is  Love  represented  ?  He  is  said  to  be  the  son  of  Venus 
and  Mars,  and  is  painted  as  a  child  with  wings,  carrying  a  bow 
and  quiver  filled  with  arrows  ;  sometimes  he  is  represented  blind, 
or  with  a  bandage  over  his  eyes,  and  a  torch  in  his  hand  and  his 
finger  on  his  hps,  as  a  sign  of  discretion.  Who  was  Hymen  ? 
He  was  the  son  of  Venus  and  Bacchus.  He  presided  at  mar- 
riages, and  is  represented  as  a  young  man  crowned  with  flow- 
ers, in  a  saffron-colored  robe,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  torch, 
and  in  his  left  a  nuptial  veil.  Who  were  the  three  Graces  ?  The 
Graces,  Aglae,  Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne,  were  also  the  children 
of  Venus  and  Bacchus.  Being  the  inseparable  companions  of 
Venus,  the  goddess  owes  to  them  the  charms  which  ensured  the 
tiiumph  of  her  beauty.  They  are  represented  naked,  and  hold- 
ing each  other  by  the  hand  or  with  their  arms  entAvined,  show- 
ing they  are  the  link  and  charm  of  society,  and  that  the  simple 
beauty  of  nature  is  superior  to  that  of  art.  Tell  the  story  of 
Anchises.  Eneas  Avas  the  son  of  Anchises,  a  Trojan  prince,  who 
met  the  goddess  on  Mount  Ida.  It  is  said  that  having  boasted 
of  her  favor,  Jupiter  struck  him  with  a  thunderbolt,  which  only 
grazed  without  injuring  him.  Relate  the  story  of  Adonis.  He 
was  a  young  man  of  such  extraordinary  beauty,  that  Venus  for- 
sook the  society  of  the  gods  to  follow  him  to  the  forests  of 
Mount  Libanus,  whither  he  went  to  hunt.  Mars,  being  jealous 
of  this  preference,  engaged  the  assistance  of  Diana.  This  god- 
dess raised  up  an  enormous  boar,  whom  Adonis  wounded  by 
throwing  his  javelin  at  him  ;  and  the  furious  animal  tore  him  to 
pieces.  Venus  arriving  too  late  to  relieve  her  favorite,  wept 
over  him,  and  changed  him  by  her  tears  into  an  Anemone. 
Who  was  Psyche  ?  Psyche,  whose  narae  in  Greek  signifies  the 
soul,  was  the  goddess  of  pleasure ;  and  is  represented  with 
butterflies'  wings,  and  sometimes  with  a  butterfly  hovering 


248  MYTHOLOGY. 

near  her.  Venus  was  so  jealous  of  her  beauty,  and  of  tlie 
passion  which  Cupid  entertained  for  her,  that  she  persecuted 
her  to  death ;  but  Jupiter  restored  her  to  hfe  and  rendered 
her  immortal,  for  the  sake  of  Love.  Where  were  honors  ren- 
dered to  Venus  ?  She  was  principally  worshipped  at  Ama- 
thontus,  a  town  of  Cyprus ;  at  Paphos,  in  the  same  island ; 
and  at  Cytherea,  an  island  to  the  south  of  the  Poloponnesus, 
where  she  had  a  celebrated  temple.  Wliat  were  her  names  ? 
Venus  is  called  Cypria,  from  the  particular  worship  which 
is  paid  her  at  Cyprus,  where  the  town  and  mountain  of 
Idalia  were  particularly  consecrated  to  her;  Cytherea,  be- 
cause as  soon  as  she  was  formed  from  the  froth  of  the  sea, 
she  was  transported  to  that  island  by  the  Nereides  and  Loves 
on  a  sea-shell.  How  was  she  represented  ?  The  ancients  rep- 
resented the  goddess  of  beauty  in  many  different  ways.  At 
Elis,  she  is  depicted  sitting  on  a  goat,  her  foot  resting  on  a 
tortoise.  In  Sparta  and  at  Cytherea  she  is  clothed  in  armor 
like  Minerva.  At  Olympus,  as  rising  from  the  waves,  crowned 
by  Pitho,  or  Suado,  the  goddess  of  persuasion,  her  most  faithful 
companion ;  but  most  frequently  she  is  represented  with  Cupid, 
in  a  car  drawn  by  doves,  swans,  or  sparrows.  What  is  said 
of  the  girdle  of  Venus?  Homer  has  given  a  most  beautiful 
description  of  this  mysterious  girdle  ;  every  thing  attractive, 
agreeable,  and  charming,  is  found  within  it.  What  things  are 
dedicated  to  Venus  ?  The  dove,  rose,  and  myrtle :  the  dove, 
because  in  a  moment  of  anger.  Love  changed  into  a  dove  Pe- 
ristera,  one  of  Venus'  nymphs  ;  the  myrtle  for  its  perfume ; 
and  the  rose,  because  this  flower,  which  was  originally  ''  wJdte,^* 
changed  its  color  after  having  been  dyed  in  the  blood  of  Adonis, 
who  was  pricked  by  one  of  its  thorns.  What  offering  was  made 
to  Venus  particularly  by  women  ?  Women  were  in  the  habit 
of  offering  her  their  hair.  Berenice,  the  wife  of  Ptolemy,  king 
of  Egypt,  vowed  to  offer  her  hair  to  Venus  if  her  husband  re- 
turned victorious  from  Asia.  Her  hair  was  hung  in  the  temple 
of  this  goddess,  but  it  disappeared  the  following  night.  A 
learned  astronomer  asserted  that  the  goddess  had  placed  it  in 
heaven  and  changed  it  into  stars.  This  is  the  constellation 
called  **  Berenice's  hair." 

Who  was  Neptune  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Saturn  and  Cybele, 
the  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Pluto.  As  soon  as  he  was  born  his 
mother,  to  conceal  him  from  his  father  Saturn,  who  was  in  the 
habit  of  devouring  his  male  children,  hid  him  among  the  shep- 
herds of  Arcadia,  and  made  Saturn  believe  she  had  brought 
into  the  world  a  foal,  which  he  devoured  instead.     Which  waa 


MYTHOLOGY.  2^9 

tlie  empire  of  Neptune  ?  In  the  division  which  the  three 
brothers  made  of  the  miiverse,  Neptune  received  the  dominion  of 
the  seas  and  their  islands,  from  which  he  is  considered  the  god  of 
ocean.  Relate  the  adventures  of  Neptune.  Having  formed  a 
conspiracy  against  Jupiter  he  was  exiled  from  heaven  with  Apollo, 
and  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  working  at  the  walls  of  Troy 
for  subsistence.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  treachery  of 
Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  who  refused  to  pay  Neptune  the  salary 
agreed  upon,  and,  the  vengeance  which  he  thereby  drew  upon 
himself  from  the  god,  who  undermined  the  walls  by  water,  and 
raised  up  a  marine  monster  who  ravaged  the  banks.  After  this 
Neptune  made  his  peace  with  Jupiter,  and  employed  himself  in 
his  government  of  the  waters.  Who  was  the  wife  of  Neptune  ? 
Amphittite,  the  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris.  She  concealed 
herself  for  some  time  from  him ;  but  a  dolphin,  who  was  in 
Neptune's  interest,  found  her  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Atlas,  and 
persuaded  her  to  take  pity  on  him.  Neptune  rewarded  the 
dolphin  by  placing  him  among  the  stars.  What  children  had 
Neptune  ?  By  his  marriage  with  Amphitrite  he  had  several 
children ;  the  best  known  are  the  Tritons  and  Harpies.  What 
were  the  Tritons  ?  The  upper  parts  of  their  bodies  were  like 
men,  and  the  lower  like  fish.  They  preceded  Neptune,  and 
announced  his  coming  with  the  sound  of  the  conch ;  sometimes 
they  were  seated  on  cars  drawn  by  blue  horses.  The  poets 
have  assigned  to  them  the  power  of  calming  tempests  and  pre- 
venting shipwrecks.  Who  were  the  Harpies  ?  The  Harpies 
were  monsters,  who  had  the  face  of  a  woman,  the  ears  of  a 
bear,  the  body  of  a  vulture,  the  wings  of  a  bat,  and  talons  on 
their  feet  and  hands.  They  infected  every  thing  they  touched, 
and  by  this  means  occasioned  famine.  The  best  known  were 
Aello,  Ocypeta,  and  Ceteno.  Name  the  principal  marine  gods. 
Among  th^m  is  Ocean,  the  son  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  who 
espoused  Tethys,  who  is  sometimes  called  the  Sea.  The  car  ot 
Tethys  was  a  most  beautiful  conch-shell,  more  polished  and 
whiter  than  ivory;  it  seemed  to  fly  over  the  surface  of  the 
water.  We  must  not  confound  Tethys  with  Thetis,  the  mother 
of  Achilles.  Who  were  the  children  of  Ocean  and  Tethys  ? 
Nereis  and  Doris,  who  being  married  had  many  children  of  a 
secondary  order  of  divinities,  called  nymphs,  and  represented  as 
young  girls.  Whose  sons  were  the  rivers  ?  The  sons  of  Ocean 
and  Tethys.  Painters  and  poets  represent  them  as  old  men, 
with  thick  beards  and  long  flowing  hair,  with  a  crown  of  rushes 
on  their  heads ;  they  leaned  upon  an  urn,  from  whence  flowed 
the  water  forming  the  rivers  over  which  they  presided.     Who 


2^0  MYTHOLOGY. 

was  Proteus  ?  He  was  also  the  son  of  Ocean  and  Tethys ;  le 
was  the  guardian  of  Neptune's  flocki,  composed  of  seals  and 
sea-calves.  The  sea-god  had  given  him  the  knowledge  of  the 
past,  present,  and  future.  When  any  one  went  to  consult  him 
he  assumed  a  variety  of  forms  to  frighten  those  who  approached. 
Sometimes  he  was  a  lion,  then  a  leopard,  then  a  boar ;  sometimes 
he  was  seen  as  water,  then  as  fire.  To  force  him  to  speak  it  was 
necessary  to  find  him  sleeping,  and  tie  him  in  such  a  way  that 
he  could  not  escape.  Who  were  the  Sirens  ?  They  were  the 
daughters  of  the  river  Achelous  and  the  muse  Calliope ;  they 
inhabited  the  high  rocks  between  the  island  of  Capria  and  the 
coast  of  Italy.  There  were  three  principal,  Leucosia,  Ligeria, 
and  Parthenopae :  they  had  the  head  and  body  of  a  woman  as 
far  as  the  waist,  and  the  rest  like  a  bird.  They  attracted 
travellers  by  the  sweetness  and  melody  of  their  songs.  What 
had  an  oracle  predicted  of  them?  That  they  would  perish  so 
soon  as  a  man  could  be  found  to  resist  the  power  of  their  voice 
and  words.  Therefore  these  enchantresses  did  not  fail  to  put 
to  death  all  who  ventured  near  them,  until  the  earth  was 
whitened  by  the  bones  of  their  victims.  How  did  Ulysses 
resist  them?  Warned  by  Circe,  he  stopped  the  ears  of  his 
companions  with  wax,  and  they  tied  themselves  to  the  masts  of 
their  vessel ;  these  precautions  were  not  useless,  for  Ulysses 
himself  was  so  charmed  by  the  flatteries  of  the  Sirens  that  he 
made  signs  to  them  to  untie  him,  but  this  they  refused,  and  the 
Sirens,  in  spite,  threw  themselves  into  the  sea.  Who  was  Eolus  ? 
Among  the  sea-gods  he  must  not  be  forgotten,  who  had  the 
power  .of  raising  storms  and  tempests  ;  he  was  the  son  of 
Jupiter,  and  reigned  over  the  isles  of  Eolides,  now  called  the 
Lipari  isles.  How  does  Virgil  describe  him  ?  As  keeping  the 
winds  chained  up  in  a  deep  cavern ;  to  point  out  the  ravages 
they  occasioned  Avhen  they  separated  Sicily  from  Italy,  and 
opened  the  straits  of  Gibraltar. 

What  was  the  adventure  of  Glaucus  ?  He  was  the  son  of 
Neptune  and  the  nymph  Nais,  and  a  celebrated  fisherman  of 
Anthedon,  in  Beotia.  One  day  having  rested  his  fish  on  a 
certain  herb,  he  noticed  that  they  regained  their  strength  and 
jumped  again  into  the  sea.  He  wished  to  try  the  herb  himself, 
but  he  had  no  sooner  tasted  it  than  he  threw  himself  into  the 
sea.  Ocean  and  Tethys  then  deprived  him  of  humanity,  and 
admitted  him  among  the  sea-gods.  Who  was  Scylla  ?  She 
was  a  beautiful  nymph  beloved  by  Glaucus ;  but  as  she  did  not 
return  this  bve,  he  apphed  to  Circe,  a  famous  sorceress,  who 
poisoned  the  fountain  in  which  Scylla  bathed.     No  sooner  had 


MYTHOLOGY.  251 

she  entered  it  than  she  found  herself  changed  into  a  monster 
with  twelve  talons  and  six  heads ;  a  pack  of  dogs  came  out  of 
her  body,  and  by  their  continual  bowlings,  struck  with  horror 
all  those  who  passed  by.  Scylla  disgusted  with  herself  sprung 
into  the  waves,  and  was  changed  into  a  gulf  which  bears  her 
name.  Who  was  Charybdis  ?  Charybdis,  having  stolen  the 
flocks  of  Hercules,  was  struck  by  Jupiter's  thunderbolts  and 
changed  into  a  gulf,  found  near  the  straits  of  Messina,  facing 
Scylla,  and  equally  dangerous.  Homer  supposes  that  three 
times  a  day  he  swallows  the  waves,  and  throws  them  forth  again 
with  horrible  bellowings.  Who  was  Phorcys  ?  Phorcys  was  a 
marine  god ;  the  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra.  Fable  says  the 
Goigons  were  his  daughters.  Thorsa,  one  of  the  daughters, 
had  a  son  by  Neptune,  who  was  the  Cyclop  Polephemus.  Of 
Phorcys  also  was  born  the  serpent  who  guarded  the  golden 
apples  of  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides.  What  were  the  Hal- 
cyons ?  Marine  birds,  who  made  their  nests  on  the  waves,  even 
during  the  depth  of  winter.  During  this  time  the  sea  became 
calm,  and  tempests  respected  the  young  family.  This  calm 
continued  about  fourteen  days,  and  the  sailors  called  them 
"Dies  alcyonei — Halcyon  days."  Where  do  the  Halcyons 
come  from  ?  Their  origin  is  explained  in  the  following  manner. 
Alcyone,  the  wife  of  Ceyx,  king  of  Thacia,  saw  in  a  dream  the 
shipwreck  of  her  husband,  who  was  returning  from  Delphos. 
At  sunrise  the  princess,  in  great  alarai,  ran  to  the  shore  and 
found  the  body  of  her  husband  floating  on  the  waves;  she 
tried  to  throw  herself  into  the  sea  to  embrace  him,  but  the  gods, 
touched  with  compassion,  changed  the  faithful  pair  into  Hal- 
cyons. How  is  Neptune  represented  ?  He  is  generally  repre- 
s^ented  with  a  trident  in  his  hand  standing  on  the  waves  of  the 
sea,  and  often  on  a  car  drawn  by  sea-horses ;  the  lower  part  of 
their  bodies  ending  in  a  fish's  tail.  Describe  the  car  of  Nep- 
tune. It  is  in  the  form  of  a  large  shell,  the  wheels  are  of  gold, 
and  appear  to  fly  over  the  surface  of  the  waters.  The  Tritons, 
Nereids,  and  Dolphins,  covered  with  scales  which  shine  and 
appear  like  gold  and  silver,  swim  in  crowds  around  the  car. 
What  distinguishes  the  trident  of  Neptune  ?  The  trident,  or 
sceptre  with  three  prongs,  marked  the  triple  power  which 
Neptune  retained  of  raising  and  appeasing  the  sea ;  and  opening 
the  earth  when  struck  by  the  god  with  that  emblem  of  his 
puissance.  What  people  particularly  worshipped  Neptune? 
The  Lybians  looked  upon  Neptune  as  their  greatest  divinity. 
In  Greece  and  Italy  many  templea  were  dedicated  to  him ;  as 
well  as  feasts  and  games.     Those  of  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth, 


252  MYTHOLOGY. 

and  the  circus  at  Rome  were  solemnized  with  much  ceremony. 
What  were  sacrificed  to  him  ?  Besides  the  ordinary  victims, 
that  is  to  say,  the  horse  and  bull,  the  Auruspices  offered  to 
him  the  gall  of  the  animal,  because  it  is  as  bitter  as  the  waves 
of  the  sea.  Why  was  the  horse  sacred  to  him  ?  Because  he 
made  this  animal  spring  from  the  earth  by  a  blow  of  his  trident. 
Who  was  Pluto  ?  The  brother  of  Neptune  and  Jupiter,  and 
the  third  son  of  Saturn.  He  had  the  same  fate  as  the  greater 
part  of  his  brothers ;  but  Jupiter  administered  a  drink  to  the 
god,  and  Saturn  rejected  Pluto  from  his  stomach.  His  gratitude 
prompted  him  to  omit  nothing  to  assist  his  brother  in  the  war 
against  Saturn ;  and  after  the  victory,  obtained  the  sovereignty 
of  the  inferaal  regions.  Who  was  the  wife  of  Pluto  ?  Pro- 
serpine, the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres ;  he  was  obliged  to 
carry  her  off,  as  no  goddess  would  consent  to  marry  him,  on 
account  of  his  extreme  ugliness  and  the  horrible  darkness  of  his 
kingdom.  Give  some  account  of  these  regions.  The  empire 
of  Pluto  consisted  of  those  subterranean  places  where  the  souls 
of  the  dead  were  punished  or  rewarded.  Fable  teljs  us  it  could 
be  reached  by  the  river  Styx,  in  Arcadia.  What  did  the  infer- 
nal regions  contain  ?  The  Greeks  imagined  it  to  be  a  vast  place 
divided  into  two  parts ;  the  one  frightfully  dark  and  horrible, 
with  lakes  exhaling  deathlike  and  noisome  vapors,  towers  of 
iron  and  brass,  burning  furnaces,  and  horrible  monsters  gnawed 
and  tormented  the  souls  of  the  departed — this  was  Tartarus. 
The  other,  smiling  and  peaceful,  where  an  eternal  spring 
reigned,  and  this  was  called  the  Elysian  fields,  the  abodes  of 
virtuous  shades.  What  were  its  principal  rivers?  Acheron, 
Cocytus,  Phlegethon,  Styx,  Erebus,  and  Lethe.  What  was 
Acheron?  He  was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Terra,  and  was 
changed  into  a  river  and  sent  to  hell  for  having  furnished  the 
giants  with  water  when  they  were  at  war  with  Jupiter.  He  is 
represented  as  an  old  man,  leaning  on  a  black  urn ;  the  course 
of  the  water  was  so  rapid  th?t  it  boro  away  rocks,  and  nothing 
could  check  its  force.  Tell  us  of  Cocytus.  It  surrounded 
Tartarus,  and  was  formed  by  the  tears  of  the  wicked ;  its  name 
signifies  tears.  What  of  Phlegethon  ?  It  rolled  in  waves  of 
flame  round  every  part  of  Tartarus;  no  tree  or  plant  could 
grow  on  its  borders ;  and  after  a  long  course  in  a  contrary 
direction  to  that  of  Cocytus,  emptied  itself  into  the  Acheron. 
What  is  said  of  Styx  ?  It  was  a  river  from  which  were  exhaled 
ieadly  vapors,  and  turned  nine  times  round  hell.  The  poets 
describe  her  as  a  nymph,  the  daughter  of  Ocean  and  Tethys, 
and  say  that  Strength  and  Victory  were  her  children.     When 


MYTHOLOGY  253 

Jupiter,  in  his  war  with  the  giants,  called  all  the  gods  to  his 
assistance,  Styx  was  the  first  to  offer  her  services  with  her  two 
children.  The  king  of  gods,  delighted  with  this  proof  of  her 
devotion,  loaded  her  with  gifts ;  he  also  commanded  that  the 
Styx  should  be  a  place  sacred  to  the  gods,  and  imposed  the 
heaviest  penalties  on  those  Avho  should  break  the  vows  sworn 
in  her  name.  How  did  the  gods  take  this  oath  ?  In  swearing 
by  Styx,  it  was  ordained  that  one  hand  should  be  extended 
towards  the  sea,  and  the  other  towards  the  earth.  Those  who 
broke  this  oath  were  exiled  ten  years  from  heaven,  and  were  de- 
prived of  nectar  and  ambrosia.  Ambrosia  was  the  food  of  the 
gods,  as  nectar  was  their  common  drink.  What  of  Erebus  ? 
This  river  was  the  daughter  of  Chaos  and  Night,  who  was 
changed  into  a  river  and  condemned  to  the  infernal  regions  for 
having  aided  the  Titans.  Erebus  is  sometimes  considered  as 
part  of  hell,  and  sometimes  as  hell  itself.  Say  something  of 
Lethe.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  river  of  oblivion,"  and  is 
represented  as  an  old  man,  holding  in  one  hand  an  urn,  and  in 
the  other  the  cup  of  forgetfulness.  The  shades  were  obliged  to 
drink  of  these  waters,  which  had  the  property  of  producing 
forgetfulness  of  the  past,  and  disposed  them  to  suffer  anew  the 
miseries  of  life. 

Who  was  Charon  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Night ; 
he  is  called  the  ferryman  of  hell,  as  he  transported  all  the 
shades  over  the  Styx  in  his  boat.  He  is  represented  as  an  old 
man.  Each  shade  paid  for  his  passage  a  piece  of  money,  and 
for  this  reason  the  Greeks  and  Romans  put  a  piece  of  money  in 
the  mouth  of  every  corpse ;  these  have  been  found  under  the 
tongues  of  many  mummies.  The  souls  of  those  whose  bodies 
remained  unburied  wandered  a  hundred  years  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  before  Charon  would  ferry  them  across.  Who  was 
the  guardian  of  heY.  ?  Cerberus,  a  dog  with  three  heads,  and 
whose  neck,  instead  of  hair,  was  encircled  by  serpents;  he 
watched  the  gate  of  hell,  caressed  those  who  entered,  and 
menaced  with  terrible  bar«:s  all  those  who  wished  to  leave  it. 
It  is  said  that  Hercules  chained  him  and  made  him  follow  him 
to  earth,  when  he  released  from  hell  Alceste,  the  wife  of  Ad- 
metus.  Orpheus  lulled  Cerberus  to  sleep  by  the  sound  of  his 
lyre,  when  he  went  to  reclaim  from  Pluto  his  wife  Eurydice ; 
and  the  sibyl  who  conducted  Eneas  to  hell,  stopped  his  mouth 
by  giving  him  a  cake  to  eat  made  of  honey  and  poppies.  Who 
were  the  judges  of  hell  ?  There  were  three,  Minos,  Eaques, 
and  Rhadamanthus  ;  they  sat  in  judgment  on  the  souls  of  those 
Vvhom  Mercury  brought  before  their  tribunal.    Who  was  Minos? 

22 


254  MYTHOLOGY. 

He  was  tlie  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  a  king  of  Crete,  whfl 
governed  his  kingdom  with  much  wisdom  and  mildness ;  it  is 
said  he  retired  every  nine  years  during  his  reign  to  a  grotto, 
where  the  laws  were  dictated  to  him  by  Jupiter.  He  was  the 
chief  judge  of  hell,  and  is  represented  holding  in  one  hand 
a  sceptre,  and  in  the  other  an  urn,  in  which  was  enclosed 
the  fate  of  mortals.  Who  was  Eaques  ?  He  was  the 
king  of  Egina,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Egina,  and  was  the 
same  whose  kingdom  having  been  depopulated  by  the 
plague,  obtained  permission  to  have  it  repeopled  by  the  myr- 
midons, or  ants,  as  before  related.  Who  was  Rhadamanthus  ? 
He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  who,  having  killed  his 
brother  Minos,  took  refuge  in  Beotia,  where  he  married  Alc- 
mena,  the  widow  of  Amphitryon.  He  was  worshipped  by  his 
subjects  for  his  virtues  ;  and  such  was  the  opinion  the  ancients 
held  of  his  justice,  that  when  they  wished  to  express  a  severe 
though  just  judgment,  they  called  it  "  one  of  the  decisions  of 
Rhadamanthus."  Why  were  these  appointed  as  judges  of  hell  ? 
The  wisdom  which  Minos,  Eaques,  and  Rhadamanthus  had 
shown  in  governing  their  kingdoms  on  earth,  caused  them  to 
obtain  from  the  poets,  the  name  of  judges  of  the  infernal  regions 
after  their  death.  Who  were  the  Furies?  They  were  also 
called  Eumenides,  and  were  the  ministers  of  the  vengeance  of 
the  gods  on  mortals.  There  were  three — Megera,  Alecto,  and 
Tisiphone,  daughters  of  Acheron  and  Night.  They  were  repre- 
sented with  severe  and  menacing  countenances ;  their  dress  was 
dark  and  bloody ;  they  had  bats'  wings,  and  serpents  twisted 
about  their  heads,  and  torches  in  their  hands.  Their  compan- 
ions were  Rage,  Terror,  and  Death.  What  was  their  employ- 
ment ?  The  gods,  when  they  punished  the  wicked,  employed 
the  Furies  to  bring  on  man  all  the  evils  of  celestial  anger.  While 
living,  the  Furies  alarmed  their  souls  with  terror;  the  most 
frightful  remorse  pursued  them,  and  they  were  given  up  to 
frightful  visions  which  sunk  them  into  the  deepest  melancholy. 
The  parricide  Orestes  was  given  up  to  their  vengeance.  How 
were  they  worshi^-^ped  ?  Such  terrible  deities  required  par- 
ticular respect.  The  fear  of  them  was  so  great,  that  they  were 
never  named,  and  men  were  afraid  even  to  look  at  their  temples 
when  passing,  which  thus  became  an  asylum  for  all  criminals. 
They  sacrificed  to  the  Furies,  ewes,  rams,  and  turtle-doves. 
Who  were  the  Fates  ?  They  were  three  infernal  deities  who 
presided  over  the  lives  and  deaths  of  mortals;  their  names 
were  Clotho,  Lanchesis,  and  Atropos,  and  were  supposed  to  be 
the  daughters  of  Night.      Immutable  in  their  decrees,  they 


MYTHOLOGY  255 

spun  the  thread  of  hfe  composed  of  two  colors,  black  and  white, 
according  to  their  fate  ; — if  the  white  predominated,  the  life  was 
long  and  fortunate  ;  if  black,  miserable  and  short.  How  were 
each  employed  ?  Clotho  held  the  distaff,  Lanchesis  turned  the 
spindle,  and  Atropos  cut  the  thread.  Who  were  the  other  in- 
fernal deities  ?  The  fertile  imaginations  of  the  poets  peopled 
these  regions  with  deities  without  number :  among  the  principal 
were  Night,  Sleep,  Dreams,  Death,  and  Manes.  Who  was 
Night  ?  Night,  the  goddess  of  darkness,  was  the  daughter  of 
Heaven  and  Earth,  and  according  to  some,  of  Chaos.  She 
wedded  Acheron,  by  whom  she  had  the  Furies  and  several  other 
children.  How  was  she  represented  ?  On  antique  monuments 
she  is  represented  holding  above  her  head  a  flying  drapery, 
strewed  with  stars,  or  a  blue  drapery  with  a  reversed  torch, 
walking  in  silence  over  the  heavens,  or  in  an  ebony  car,  after  the 
sunset.  Who  was  Sleep?  He  was  the  son  of  Erebus  and 
Night,  who  inhabited  a  grotto  impervious  to  the  rays  of  the 
sun.  The  waters  of  Oblivion  flowed  near  the  entrance,  and  no 
other  noise  was  heard  save  the  soft  murmurings  of  its  waters. 
At  the  mouth  grew  poppies  and  other  somniferous  plants,  from 
which  Night  gathered  the  juices  to  disperse  them  over  the 
earth.  The  god  himself  reposed  on  a  couch  of  ebony  with 
black  curtains.  Who  were  the  children  of  Sleep  ?  They  were 
the  Dreams.  The  three  principal,  Morpheus,  Phantasy,  and 
Phobetor,  only  attended  on  palaces ;  the  others  watched  over 
the  lower  classes  under  difierent  forms,  sometimes  agreeable, 
and  sometimes  the  reverse.  Morpheus  is  represented  Avith  but- 
terflies' wings,  emblems  of  his  swiftness.  Who  Avas  Death  ? 
The  daughter  of  Erebus  and  Night,  and  sister  of  Sleep :  she 
was  one  of  the  inexorable  deities,  deaf  to  the  vows  and  prayers 
of  mortals,  and  having  no  respect  for  rank  or  talent.  She  is 
represented  armed  with  a  sickle,  with  a  pale  face  and  closed 
eyes.  Her  black  and  tattered  dress  scarcely  covered  her  bones 
and  skeleton  form  :  sometimes  she  holds  a  horn  in  her  hand,  and 
a  butterfly  flu-tters  round  her.  They  consecrated  to  her  the  yew, 
cypress,  and  the  cock,  Avhose  croAving  disturbed  the  silence  of  the 
tomb.  What  is  understood  by  the  Manes  ?  The  ancients  them- 
selves do  not  appear  to  have  any  very  correct  idea  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term.  Sometimes  they  are  considered  as  the  souls,  af- 
ter separation  from  the  body,  sometimes  as  infernal  deities,  or 
merely  tutelary  geniuses  of  death.  They  generally  sacrificed 
black  sheep  to  the  Manes,  and  the  cypress  was  consecrated  to 
them.  Who  were  the  guilty  beings  fabled  among  the  inhabitants 
of  hell?   First,  the  giants,  the  sons  of  the  Titans,  buried  beneath 


356  MYTHOLOGY. 

Mount  Etna,  which  was  considered  as  one  of  the  entrances  iato 
hell.  Ovid  says  that  when  the  giant  Typhdh  moves,  he  causes 
the  earthquakes,  and  the  eruptions  of  the  volcano  are  occasioned 
by  his  sighs  and  groans.  What  is  said  of  Sisyphus  ?  He  was  the 
son  of  Eolus  ;  and  after  having  devastated  Attica  by  his  ravages, 
and  put  to  death  all  strangers  who  fell  into  his  power,  was  sent 
to  Tartarus  by  Jupiter,  and  condemned  to  roll  an  immense  stone 
which  was  constantly  falling  back  on  him,  and  did  not  leave  him 
a  moment  of  rest.  Who  was  Salmoneus  ?  The  brother  of  Sisy- 
phus. He  wished  to  pass  for  a  god,  and  imitated  the  thunder  of 
Jupiter  by  having  his  car  surrounded  by  torches  drawn  over  a 
brazen  bridge,  from  which  he  threw  these  hghted  torches  on  his 
unfortunate  subjects.  Jupiter  killed  him  with  a  thunderbolt  and 
confined  him  in  Tartarus.  What  crime  had  Phlegyas  commit- 
ted ?  He  was  the  son  of  Mars  and  Chrysa,  and  had  a  daugh- 
ter named  Coronis,  by  whom  Apollo  had  Esculapius.  For  this 
reason  Phlegyas  set  fire  to  the  temple  at  Delphos.  To  punish 
him  he  was  condemned  to  Tartarus,  where  an  immense  stone, 
suspended  over  his  head,  kept  him  in  continual  apprehension  of 
its  fall.  Tell  the  story  of  Ixion.  He  was  king  of  the  Lapithse, 
and  having  cheated  his  father-in-law,  Deinoes,  of  the  presents 
which  he  had  promised  him  for  his  daughter,  this  last  cut  off 
his  hair.  Ixion,  dissembling  his  resentment,  invited  his  father- 
in-law  to  visit  him,  and  made  him  fall  into  a  burning  pit.  After 
this  crime  Ixion  was  obliged  to  fly  his  country,  but  Jupiter  took 
compassion  on  him,  carried  him  to  Olympus,  and  admitted  him  to 
the  table  of  the  gods ;  but  the  ungrateful  man  made  love  to  Juno, 
which  so  incensed  Jupiter,  that  he  cast  him  into  Tartarus,  and 
fastened  him  to  a  wheel  surrounded  by  serpents,  and  which 
turned  round  and  round  with  him  forever.  What  was  the 
crime  of  Tityus  ?  He  was  an  immense  giant,  a  son  of  the  Earth, 
whose  outspread  body  would  cover  nine  acres.  Having  made 
love  to  Latona,  Apollo  and  Diana  killed  him  with  their  arrows, 
and  condemned  him  to  Tartarus,  where  a  vulture  seated  on  his 
breast  constantly  devoured  his  entrails.  What  is  the  story  of 
Tantalus  ?  The  gods  having  visited  him,  he  had  his  own  son 
Pelops  served  up  to  them  as  food  with  other  meats.  But  the 
divinities  refused  to  partake  of  this  horrible  feast,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Ceres,  who  was  so  preoccupied  by  her  grief  for  the 
loss  of  her  daughter,  that  she  ate  one  of  the  shoulders  of  Pe- 
lops. The  king  of  the  gods  threw  Tantalus  into  hell,  restored 
Pelops  to  life,  and  gave  him  an  ivory  shoulder  to  replace  the 
one  which  had  been  eaten.  What  were  his  torments  ?  Jupi- 
ter condemned  him  to  continual  thirst  in  the  midst  of  a  tank, 


MYTHOLOGY.  257 

the  waters  of  which  constantly  escaped  from  his  parclied  lips ; 
aad  devouring  hunger  under  trees  loaded  with  fruit,  which 
were  blown  away  from  his  hand  into  the  clouds  so  soon  as 
it  was  stretched  forth  to  reach  them.  This  is  an  emblem  of 
avarice,  which  is  always  poor  though  surrounded  by  wealth. 
What  is  the  story  of  the  Danaides  ?  Danaus,  king  of  Argos, 
had  fifty  daughters  who  were  called  the  Danaides.  Egyptus, 
his  brother,  the  king  of  Egypt,  had  fifty  sons,  whom  he  wished 
to  marry  their  cousins.  Danaus  having  been  informed  by  an 
oracle  that  one  of  his  sons-in-law  would  dethrone  him,  com- 
manded his  daughters  to  put  their  husbands  to  death,  which 
order  was  executed  the  night  of  their  marriage  by  all  but 
one,  Hypermnestra,  who  spared  her  husband  Lynceus.  Jupi- 
ter punished  these  cruel  women  by  condemning  them  to  fill 
a  ton,  pierced  with  holes,  with  water.  How  is  Pluto  repre- 
sented ?  He  is  represented  with  different  attributes,  according 
to  the  genius  of  the  people  who  worship  him.  He  is  often  rep- 
resented carrying  off  Proserpine,  who  is  fainting,  in  his  car, 
drawn  by  black  horses.  He  has  on  his  head  a  crown  of  ebony, 
narcissus,  or  cypress.  His  right  hand  holds  a  long  fork,  the 
other  the  key  of  the  infernal  regions.  Who  was  Plutus  ?  The 
god  of  riches  ;  the  son  of  Ceres  and  Jason.  He  is  placed  among 
the  infernal  deities,  because  riches  are  drawn  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  the  residence  of  these  divinities.  He  is  represented 
as  an  old  man  with  a  purse  in  his  hand.  He  is  lame  and  de- 
formed, and  walks  towards  us  slowly ;  but  when  represented  as 
leaving  us,  it  is  with  wings,  to  show  that  riches  are  slowly 
gained  and  rapidly  lost.  He  is  also  said  to  be  blind,  because 
riches  are  dispensed  indiscriminately  to  the  good  and  evil 
Whose  son  was  Mars  ?  The  god  of  war  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Juno.  Who  were  his  children  ?  He  had  by  Venus,  Her- 
mione ;  and  by  Rhea,  Sylvia,  Romulus,  and  Remus.  Another  sod 
of  Mars  was  Asculaphus,  who  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Troy 
By  whom  was  he  wounded  ?  By  Diomede,  at  the  siege  of 
Troy,  where  he  took  the  side  of  the  Trojans.  Minerva,  who 
favored  the  Greeks,  directed  the  lance  of  Diomede,  and. when 
Mars  was  wounded,  he  uttered  so  loud  and  horrible  a  cry,  that 
it  was  like  the  sound  of  a  whole  army  rushing  to  battle.  How 
is  Mars  represented  ?  As  a  warrior  clothed  in  armor ;  some- 
times seated  in  a  car  drawn  by  fiery  horses,  who  are  led  or 
driven  by  Bellona.  A  cock  is  generally  placed  near  him,  to 
sho^V*  the  watchfulness  which  the  science  of  war  requires. 
Where  were  the  greatest  honors  paid  to  him  ?  The  worship 
of  Mars,  spread  by  the  Greeks,  was  much  in  favor  at  Rome. 

22* 


258  MYTIIOLOGV. 

It  is  said  thcat  the  Romans  looked  upon  this  god  as  the  protec' 
tor  of  their  empire.  Who  were  his  priests  ?  They  were  insti- 
tuted by  Numa,  and  called  Salii,  which  means  to  "jump'^  be- 
cause they  danced  through  the  streets  when  they  celebrated  hig 
feasts.  They  carried  about  small  bucklers  called  "  ancilles,'* 
which  they  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  to  the 
preservation  of  which  the  superstitious  Romans  attached  the 
safety  of  their  city.  Was  the  name  ''Mars"  bestowed  upon 
one  person  only  ?  It  is  supposed  that  the  name  was  given  to 
most  wailike  princes,  and  that  every  country  had  a  Mars  as 
well  as  a  Hercules. 

Relate  the  circumstances  of  Minerva's  birth.  Minerva,  daugh- 
ter of  Jupiter,  was  goddess  of  wisdom,  of  war,  of  sciences  and 
arts.  Fable  says  that  Jupiter,  feeling  a  violent  pain  in  his  head, 
had  recourse  to  Vulcan,  who  cleft  his  head  Avith  an  axe.  Mi- 
nerva sprang  in  full  armor  from  his  brain,  and  of  an  age  which 
permitted  her  to  aid  her  father  gallantly  against  the  Titans. 
Had  she  not  two  names  ?  When  this  goddess  presided  in  war, 
she  took  the  name  of  Pallas ;  considered  as  the  goddess  of  wis- 
dom and  the  fine  arts,  she  is  called  Minerva.  However,  these 
names  are  indifferently  given.  What  dispute  had  she  with 
Neptune  ?  One  of  the  most  celebrated  passages  in  the  history 
of  Minerva,  is  her  dispute  with  Neptune,  to  decide  upon  the 
honor  of  giving  a  name  to  the  city  of  Athens,  which  Cecrops  had 
founded.  The  twelve  great  gods,  chosen  as  arbiters,  decided 
that  this  honor  belonged  to  the  two  divinities  who  should  pro- 
duce the  most  useful  thing  for  the  city.  Neptune,  with  a  blow 
of  his  trident,  caused  a  beautiful  horse  to  rise  from  the  earth  ; 
and  Minerva,  with  a  blow  of  her  lance,  an  ohve-tree,  the  sym- 
bol of  peace.  The  gods  decided  in  favor  of  the  goddess  of 
wisdom,  and  the  city  founded  by  Cecrops  was  called  Athens, 
in  honor  of  Minerva,  called  formerly  Athena  by  the  Greeks. 
How  was  she  revenged  upon  Arachne  ?  Arachne  having  pre- 
tended to  surpass  Minerva  in  the  art  of  embroidering,  the 
goddess  came  to  see  her  under  the  form  of  an  old  woman. 
Arachne  dared  her  to  a  trial.  The  able  workwoman  embroider- 
ed with  more  neatness  than  the  goddess.  Minerva,  for  spite, 
broke  her  rival's  frame  and  spindle.  Arachne  hung  herself  in 
despair,  and  Minerva  transformed  her  into  a  spider.  How  is  she 
represented  ?  In  simple  and  modest  beauty  ;  a  grave  manner, 
full  of  strength  and  majesty,  is  given  to  Minerva.  She  gener- 
ally has  a  helmet  surmounted  by  an  owl  upon  her  head,  a 
pike  in  one  hand,  a  buckler  in  the  other,  and  the  zegis  upon 
her  breast.     Sometimes  the  attributes  of  the  sciences  and  arts 


M\ IHOLOGY.  259 

are  placed  near  her.  What  was  this  regis  ?  The  aegis  of  Mi- 
nerva was  a  buckler  covered  with  the  skin  cf  a  monster  called 
segius,  who  vomited  fire,  and  was  slain  by  Minerva.  Upon 
this  sacred  buckler  is  fastened  the  head  of  Medusa,  one  of  the 
three  Gorgons.  Around  the  immortal  aegis  werx3  Terror,  Dis- 
cord, Strength,  &c.  What  was  consecrated  to  Minerva  ?  The 
olive-tree,  the  emblem  of  peace,  and  the  owl,  emblem  of  pru- 
dence and  wisdom,  were  sacred  to  Minerva.  The  appearance 
of  this  bird  was  only  fatal  when  she  sung,  but  silence  was  a 
good  omen.  Where  was  Minerva  particularly  honored  ?  Mi- 
nerva was  particularly  honored  at  Athens.  Her  feasts,  which 
were  celebrated  every  year,  were  at  first  called  Athense,  after- 
wards Panathense.  Prizes  were  awarded  there  for  gymnastic 
combats,  and  for  those  who  excelled  in  poetry  and  music.  Tlue 
little  Panathense  were  celebrated  every  year,  and  the  great  ones 
every  five  years. 

Relate  the  circumstances  of  Vulcan's  birth.  Vulcan  was  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno.  He  came  into  the  world  so  deformed 
that  Jupiter,  ashamed  of  having  such  a  son,  took  him  by  one 
foot  and  dashed  him  from  heaven  :  he  fell  upon  the  isle  of 
Lemnos,  almost  lifeless,  after  having  rolled  through  the  air  one 
whole  day.  The  inhabitants  of  Lemnos  received  him,  and  took 
care  of  him  ;  but  he  was  always  lame  from  this  fall.  How  did 
Vulcan's  disgrace  end  ?  Vulcan,  recalled  to  heaven  by  the  aid 
of  Bacchus,  returned  to  Jupiter's  good  graces,  who  allowed 
him  to  marry  Venus,  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  goddesses. 
What  were  Vulcan's  offices  ?  Fable  makes  him  the  god  of  fire, 
and  tells  us  that  he  was  celebrated  as  a  forger  of  iron.  He  had 
established  his  forges  in  the  island  of  Lemnos,  at  Liparus,  and 
in  the  caverns  of  Mt.  Etna ;  his  companions  were  the  Cyclops, 
monstrous  giants,  who  had  but  one  eye,  in  the  middle  of  their 
foreheads,  as  their  name  indicates.  These  able  forgemen  made 
for  Pluto  the  casque  which  rendered  him  invincible ;  for  Nep- 
tune, the  trident  with  which  he  raised  and  calmed  the  seas ; 
and  for  Jupiter  the  thunderbolts  with  which  he  made  the  gods 
and  men  tremble.  Which  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Cyclops?  Polyphemus  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Cy- 
clops; he  loved  Galatea,  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  but 
this  nymph  cared  only  for  the  attentions  of  the  shepherd  Acis. 
The  Cyclops,  jealous  of  this  preference,  crushed  his  young  rival 
with  a  rock  ;  Galatea,  overcome  with  grief,  changed  her  lover's 
blood  into  a  river  in  Sicily,  which  bears  his  name. 

What  is  said  of  the  Muses?     Jupiter,  transformed  into  a 
shepherd,  gained  the  love  of  Mnemosyne,  g-oddess  of  memory. 


260  MYTHOLC/GY. 

and  daughter  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  The  nine  Muses  were  born 
of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne.  It  is  thus  that  nine  young  virgins 
are  described  of  so  strict  chastity,  tliat  they  put  the  young 
Adonis  to  death  for  having  dared  to  inspire  them  with  too 
tender  sentiments.  They  dwelt  on  Hehcon,  Pindus,  and  Par- 
nassus, w^here  they  were  instructed  by  their  brother  Apollo; 
thence  the  names  of  "learned  fairies,"  "sisters  of  Apollo,"  and 
"  goddesses  of  the  sacred  valley,"  by  which  they  are  designated ; 
they  are  also  called  the  "nine  sisters,"  and  the  "daughters  of 
memory."  Over  what  did  they  preside  ?  Although  the  nine 
Muses  preside  equally  over  sciences,  the  fine  arts,  and  poetry, 
each  of  them  has  a  particular  employment.  Calliope  presides 
over  eloquence  and  heroic  poetry ;  Clio  over  history ;  Erato 
over  amorous  poetry ;  Melpomene  over  tragedy ;  Thalia  over 
comedy  ;  Terpsichore  over  dancing  ;  Euterpe  over  instruments  ; 
Polymnia  over  elegiac  poetrj'^ ;  Urania  over  astronomy.  How 
are  they  represented?  They  are  described  as  beautiful  and 
modest  young  girls,  simply  clad,  and  having  wings.  Apollo  is 
at  their  head,  a  lyre  in  his  hand,  and  crowned  with  laurel.  As 
each  one  presides  over  a  different  art,  they  have  crowns,  and 
certain  particular  attributes.  Why  are  they  given  wings  ? 
They  took  wings  to  escape  the  outrages  of  Pyreneus,  king  of 
Phocia,  with  whom  they  were  forced  to  take  refuge  from  a 
storm.  This  prince,  to  pursue  them,  mounted  a  high  tower ; 
but  not  being  able  to  sustain  himself  in  the  air,  he  fell,  and  was 
killed.  What  worship  was  rendered  them  ?  They  had  altars 
in  Greece,  in  Macedonia,  and  Rome.  The  Muses  and  Graces 
were  honored  in  the  same  temple,  and  an  agreeable  banquet 
was  scarcely  made  that  they  were  not  called  to  it  and  saluted, 
glass  in  hand.  But  they  have  been  most  honored  by  the  poets, 
who  have  the  habit  of  invoking  them  at  the  commencement  of 
their  poems,  as  the  goddesses  most  capable  of  inspiring  the 
enthusiasm  so  necessary  in  their  art.  What  objects  were  conse- 
crated to  them  ?  Among  fountains  and  rivers,  the  Hippocrcne, 
the  Castalia,  and  the  Permessus  were  sacred  to  them ;  and 
among  trees,  the  palm-tree  and  laurel. 

What  is  the  second  order  of  gods  ?  They  are  inferior  in  rank 
to  those  of  the  first  o^der,  and  inhabit  the  earth,  never  being 
admitted  into  heaven.  They  were  very  numerous,  because  the 
ancients  had  introduced  many  allegorical  divinities,  who,  like 
Truth,  Envy,  Rage,  etc.,  were  merely  virtues  or  vices ;  even  the 
passions  were  honored  by  the  heathens  with  particular  adoration. 
Of  what  was  Momus  the  god  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Sleep  and 
Night,  and  god  of  raillery  and  wit.     Having  been  chosen  by 


MYTHOLOGY.  261 

Neptune,  Yulcan,  and  Minerva,  judge  of  the  excellence  of  their 
works,  he  criticised  all  three  with  equal  severity.  What  was 
his  judgment  ?  He  blamed  Neptune  for  not  having  placed  the 
horns  of  the  bull  before  the  eyes,  that  the  animal  might  strike 
with  greater  precision.  He  criticised  the  man  Vulcan  had 
forged,  as  he  had  not  placed  a  window  in  the  breast,  by  which 
whatever  was  done  or  thought  there,  might  be  easily  brought 
to  light.  Finally,  he  censured  the  house  which  Minerva  had 
built,  because  the  goddess  had  not  made  it  moveable,  by  which 
means  a  bad  neighborhood  might  be  avoided.  These  illiberal 
reflections  upon  the  gods  were  the  cause  of  Momus  beii-g  driven 
from  heaven.  How  is  he  represented  ?  Raising  a  mask  from 
his  face  with  one  hand ;  his  staff,  the  emblem  of  folly,  rests  in 
the  other,  showing  that  while  he  unmasks  the  vices  of  men  he 
laughs  at  their  folly.  Who  was  Comus  ?  God  of  joy  and 
pleasure,  presiding  over  feasts  and  the  toilette.  His  worship- 
pers adored  him  at  night,  their  heads  crowned  with  flowers,  and 
accompanied  by  youths  and  maidens,  who  sang,  danced,  and 
played  upon  various  instruments.  How  is  he  represented  ? 
The  poets  described  him  young  and  stout,  his  face  flushed  with 
wine,  and  crowned  with  roses;  holding  a  torch  in  his  right 
hand,  his  left  resting  on  a  column.  What  is  said  of  Bellona  ? 
She  was  goddess  of  war,  and  sister  to  Mars ;  she  is  represented 
armed  with  a  torch,  her  hair  dishevelled,  and  a  whip  in  her 
hand  to  animate  the  combatants  in  war.  Her  priests,  called 
Bellonaireans,  celebrated  her  feasts  by  wounding  themselves, 
the  blood  being  ofiered  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  goddess.  Whose 
son  was  Esculapius  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph 
Coronis.  Having  been  educated  by  Chiron,  he  became  the 
inventor  and  god  of  medicine.  He  accompanied  Hercules  and 
Jason  in  the  expedition  against  Colchis ;  and  was  of  great 
service  to  the  Argonauts  by  healing  the  sick  and  wounded. 
Did  he  not  resuscitate  the  dead  ?  Yes,  it  was  he  who  gave  new 
life  to  Hippclytus,  son  of  Theseus.  Jupiter,  irritated  to  see  a 
mortal  thus  encroach  upon  his  rights,  killed  the  physician  by 
lightning.  Apollo,  being  inconsolable  from  the  death  of  his  son, 
caused  him  to  be  received  into  heaven,  where  he  was  made  a 
star,  called  Serpentarius.  Where  was  he  worshipped  ?  For 
some  time  only  at  his  native  town,  Epidaurus,  but  his  worship 
soon  spread  through  Greece.  How  is  he  represented  ?  Sitting 
on  a  throne,  a  stick  in  his  right  hand,  his  left  resting  on  a  ser- 
pent's head.  Cocks  and  hens  are  sacrificed  to  him.  Had  he 
any  children  ?  Two,  Machaon  and  Podahsus,  who  accompanied 
the  Greeks  in  the  expedition  against  Troy,  and  were  of  great 


262  MYTHOLOGY. 

Bervice  as  physicians.  Whose  son  was  Pan  ?  Some  say  Jupiter 
and  CalHsto  are  his  parents ;  others,  Mercury  and  Penelope. 
He  was  the  god  of  shepherds,  of  huntsmen,  and  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country.  How  is  he  represented  ?  He  had 
two  small  horns  on  his  head,  his  complexion  was  ruddy,  his 
nose  flat,  and  his  legs,  thighs,  tail,  and  feet  were  those  of  a  goat. 
The  Satyrs  are  his  companions,  and  Sylvanus,  who  presides  over 
forests.  Where  is  he  worshipped?  Particularly  in  Arcadia, 
where  he  gave  oracles  on  Mount  Lycaeus.  His  feasts  wei-e 
celebrated  at  Rome  under  the  name  of  Lupercalia ;  the  priests 
who  officiated  were  called  Luperci.  What  is  the  derivation  of 
the  word  Pan  ?  It  comes  from  a  Greek  word  which  means  all. 
He  was  considered  as  the  symbol  of  the  universe.  Give  the 
history  of  Syrinx.  She  was  an  Arcadian  nymph,  with  whom 
Pan  was  in  love ;  and  her  father,  the  river  Ladon,  changed  her 
into  some  reeds  to  enable  her  to  escape  him.  The  reeds,  which 
received  the  sighs  of  Pan,  made  a  very  sweet  sound,  and  he 
made  himself  a  pipe  out  of  them,  called  Pan's  pipe.  Whose 
son  was  Faunus  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Picus,  king  of  the  Latins, 
and  grandson  of  Saturn.  He  was  numbered  among  the  deities 
of  the  country,  as  he  had  introduced  agriculture  to  mankind. 
What  were  the  Fauni  ?  Rustic  Roman  deities,  descendants  of 
Faunus,  who  liv^d  in  the  fields,  and  were  principally  engaged 
in  agriculture;  this  employment  distinguishes  them  from  the 
Satyrs  and  Sylvani.  Over  what  did  Sylvanus  preside  ?  Over 
forests  :  he  is  said  to  be  the  son  of  Faunus;  many  confound  him 
with  Pan.  He  is  generally  represented  as  half  a  goat  and  half 
a  man,  holding  a  branch  of  cypress  in  his  hand,  and  is  some- 
times classed  with  the  Fauns,  Satyrs,  and  Silenus.  What  is  said 
of  the  Satyrs  ?  They  were  demigods  of  the  country,  and  are 
described  as  small  men,  covered  with  thick  hair,  the  feet  and 
legs  of  goats,  and  short  horns  on  the  head.  They  frequently 
terrified  tL3  shepherds,  and  pursued  the  shepherdesses;  sac- 
rifices were  offered  to  them  of  the  first-fruits  of  every  thing. 
What  is  their  name  derived  from  ?  A  Hebrew  word,  "  sair,'* 
which  signifies  a  devil  under  the  shape  of  a  goat ;  when  old, 
they  were  called  Sileni.  Who  was  Priapus?  The  son  of 
Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  god  of  gardens  and  fruit-trees ;  the 
Romans  placed  his  statue  in  their  gardens.  How  is  he  repre- 
sented ?  With  a  human  face,  and  the  horns  of  a  goat ;  he  was 
crowned  with  the  leaves  of  the  vine,  and  sometimes  with  laurel ; 
his  statues  are  often  surrounded  with  gardening  implements. 
Over  what  did  Terminus  preside  ?  He  was  the  god  of  bounda- 
ries.    His  worship  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  by  Numa 


MYTHOLC  GY.  263 

Pompilius,  to  punish  all  unlawful  usurpation  of  land.  lie  was 
first  represented  as  a  large  square  stone ;  afterwards,  as  a 
human  head  without  feet  or  arms,  to  intimate  that  he  never 
moved,  wherever  he  was.  How  was  he  honored  ?  Not  only 
in  his  temples,  but  also  in  fields,  and  was  ornamented  with 
garlands.  The  sacrifices  made  him  were  for  some  time  only 
milk,  wine,  fruits,  and  cakes  made  of  new  flour ;  but  after- 
wards goats  and  sows  were  offered  to  him.  Who  was  Pales  ? 
The  goddess  of  sheepfolds  and  pastures ;  her  festivals,  called 
Palilia,  were  celebrated  the  very  day  that  Romulus  began  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  Rome.  The  ceremony  consisted  in  lighting 
a  large  heap  of  straw,  over  which  the  shepherds  jumped,  one 
after  the  other,  and  the  most  active  gained  the  prize,  which 
was  generally  a  young  goat  or  lamb.  Who  was  Pomona  ?  A 
goddess  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  presiding  over  gardens  and 
fruit-trees ;  she  married  Vertumnus,  god  of  autumn.  How  is 
she  represented  ?  Sitting  on  a  basket,  full  of  flowers  and  fruit, 
and  holding  a  bough  in  one  hand  and  apples  in  the  other.  She 
had  a  temple  at  Rome,  and  sacrifices  were  offered  to  her  for 
the  preservation  of  fruit.  What  does  fable  say  of  Flora  ?  She 
was  the  goddess  of  flowers  and  spring,  and  married  to  Zeph- 
yrus,  who  gave  her  the  empire  of  flowers.  What  were  her 
festivals  ?  They  were  called  Floralia,  and  celebrated  by  women, 
who  danced  for  a  day  and  a  night,  and  those  who  showed  less 
fatigue  than  others  were  crowned  with  flowers.  She  is  repre- 
sented with  a  wreath  on  her  head,  and  holding  a  basket  of 
flowers. 

Who  were  the  Nymphs  ?  The  children  of  Nereus  and  Dons  ; 
not  immortal,  but  very  longlived.  How  many  kinds  of  nymphs 
are  described  ?  Two  ;  water-nymphs,  and  nymphs  of  the  earth. 
How  were  the  water-nymphs  divided  ?  Into  Nereides  and 
Naiades ;  the  Nereides  were  sea-nymphs,  half  fish,  half  woman ; 
the  Naiades  presided  over  rivers,  fountains,  streams,  and  lakes  ; 
and  are  represented  holding  an  urn,  from  which  they  seemed  to 
pour  water.  How  were  the  nymphs  of  the  earth  divided  ?  Into 
four  diflerent  classes :  the  Dryades,  presiding  over  the  country ; 
the  JSIapseae,  over  hills  and  dales;  the  Oreades,  over  mountains; 
and  the  Hamadryades,  over  forests.  Give  the  history  of  Thetis. 
She  was  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Nereides,  and  was  courted 
by  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Apollo;  but  when  the  gods  were 
informed  that  her  son  would  be  greater  than  his  father,  their 
addresses  were  stepped  ;  and  Peleus,  the  son  of  ^acus,  was 
permitted  to  solicit  her  hand,  and  became  the  father  of  Achilles. 
Relate  the  misfortunes  of  Echo?     She  was  the  daughter  of 


264  MYTHOLOGY. 

Air  and  the  Earth ;  her  loquacity  having  displeased  Jupiter,  she 
was  deprived  of  the  power  of  speech  by  Juno  ;  and  only  per- 
mitted to  answer  the  questions  which  w^ere  put  to  her.  She 
fell  in  love  with  the  handsome  Narcissus,  and  being  despised  by 
him,  she  pined  away  and  was  changed  into  a  stone ;  which  still 
retained  the  power  of  voice.  What  was  the  punishment  of 
Narcissus  ?  Cupid,  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of 'Echo,  led  him  to 
a,  fountain,  where  he  became  enamored  of  the  reflection  of  his 
Dwn  image,  and  after  fruitless  attempts  to  approach  this  beau- 
tiful object,  he  grew  desperate  and  killed  himself.  His  blood 
was  changed  into  a  flower  which  still  bears  his  name.  What 
was  the  metamorphosis  of  Arethusa  ?  She  was  one  of  Diana's 
attendants ;  and  while  bathing  one  day  was  seen  by  the  river 
Alpheus,  who  fell  in  love  with  her ;  to  escape  from  the  god,  she 
implored  Diana  to  change  her  into  a  fountain;  and  Alpheus 
immediately  mingled  his  streams  with  hers.  What  nymph  was 
consulted  by  Numa  ?  Egeria ;  according  to  Ovid  she  became 
his  wife.  This  prince  frequently  visited  her,  and  that  he  anight 
more  successfully  introduce  his  laws  into  the  state,  solemnly 
declared  before  the  Romans  that  they  were  previously  sanc- 
tioned by  the  nymph  Egeria.  The  death  of  JSTuma  rendered 
her  so  disconsolate  that  she  melted  into  tears,  and  was  changed 
into  a  fountain  by  Diana.  Who  were  the  household  gods  ? 
The  Lares,  who  presided  over  houses  and  families ;  and  the 
Penates,  who  were  the  guardians  of  cities  and  empires ;  but 
often  confounded  with  the  Lares.  How  were  the  Penates  wor- 
shipped? Their  statues  were  generally  made  of  wax,  ivory, 
silver,  or  earth ;  and  the  only  .oflerings  they  received  were  wine, 
incense,  fruits,  &c  :  their  feasts,  called  Compitaha,  were  cele- 
brated in  the  open  air.  Who  was  Genius  ?  The  son  of  Heaven 
and  Nature,  who  gave  life  and  motion  to  all ;  empires,  cities,  and 
even  small  villages,  had  a  tutelary  genius.  Did  not  every  man 
have  a  genius  ?  Yes,  two  ;  one  good,  and  promoting  happiness ; 
the  other  bad,  and  inspiring  evil  and  wicked  feehngs.  They 
off'ered  him  wine,  flowers,  and  incense.  How  is  he  represented  * 
When  a  good  genius,  he  is  young,  crowned  v*^ith  poppies,  and 
holding  a  branch  of  leaves  covered  with  grapes.  The  bad  genius 
is  an  old  man  with  a  long  beard ;  an  owl  rests  on  his  hand,  a 
bird  of  bad  omen.  Who  was  Fortuna  ?  The  goddess  of  for- 
tune ;  from  her  hand  were  derived  riches  and  poverty,  pleasures 
and  misfortunes,  blessings  and  pains.  She  is  represented  bhnd, 
standing,  with  wings  to  her  feet,  one  of  which  is  in  the  air, 
the  other  resting  on  a  wlieel  which  turns  round  continually  as 
an  emblem  of  inconstancy.     What  is  the  account  given  by  fable 


MYTHOLCjay.  265 

of  Nemesis  ?  She  was  the  daughter  of  Nox  and  Oceanus,  and 
goddess  of  vengeance ;  always  prepared  to  punish  impiety,  and 
at  the  same  time  reward  the  good  and  virtuous.  How  is  she 
represented  ?  Armed  with  serpents  and  burning  torches,  and 
with  wings,  to  signify  the  swiftness  of  the  punishment  which 
follows  crime.  Who  was  Ate  ?  A  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and 
an  infernal  deity ;  occupied  in  tormenting  mankind.  Jupiter, 
justly  irritated  at  the  number  of  evils  she  had  caused,  sent 
her  from  heaven,  swearing  she  should  never  return ;  and  she 
now  traverses  the  earth,-  only  pleased  when  in  the  midst  of 
misfortime.  Who  was  Harpocrates  ?  The  Egyptian  god  of 
silence  ;  and  is  represented  under  the  form  of  a  man  with  his 
finger  on  his  lips.  The  peach-tree  is  consecrated  to  him,  as  the 
leaves  have  some  resemblance  to  a  tongue,  and  the  fruit  to  a 
heart ;  an  ingenious  emblem  of  the  harmony  which  should  exist 
between  the  heart  and  tongue.  What  is  said  of  Hermia  ?  She 
was  a  'daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  and  governed  Thessaly  with 
so  much  wisdom  that  she  was  honored  as  the  goddess  of  justice. 
Among  the  moderns  she  is  represented  as  holding  a  pair  of 
scales  in  one  hand,  and  a  sword  in  the  other.  Who  was  Astrea  ? 
The  daughter  of  Themis,  and  sometimes  confounded  with  her, 
d,s  she  was  also  goddess  of  justice.  She  lived  upon  the  earth 
during  the  golden  age  ;  but  the  wickedness  and  impiety  of 
mankind  afterwards  drove  her  to  heaven,  and  she  was  placed 
among  the  constellations  of  the  Zodiac,  under  the  name  of  Virgo. 
Who  was  Fama  or  Fame  ?  The  messenger  of  Jupiter.  Virgil 
describes  her  as  a  monster  with  as  many  eyes,  ears,  mouths, 
and  tongues,  as  feathers.  She  is  also  represented  with  wings 
and  a  trumpet  in  her  hand,  sometimes  with  two,  for  she  pub- 
lishes truth  and  falsehood.  What  is  said  of  Envy  ?  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Night,  and  is  represented  as  a  very  ugly  old 
woman ;  her  head  covered  with  snakes  instead  of  hair,  her  eyes 
squinting  and  set  deep  in  her  head,  and  of  a  livid  complexion. 
She  holds  three  serpents  in  one  hand,  a  hydra  in  the  other,  and 
an  immense  serpent  rests  on  her  breast.  Give  some  description 
of  Discord.  She  was  an  infernal  deity,  to  whom  are  attributed 
all  the  wars  and  quarrels  among  mankind.  Jupiter  banished 
her  from  heaven  for  fomenting  disputes  among  the  gods.  What 
did  she  do  at  the  wedding  of  Thetis  and  Peleus  ?  To  revenge 
herself  for  not  having  received  an  invitation,  she  threw  the  fatal 
golden  apple  among  the  goddesses,  which  became  a  matter  of 
great  dispute,  until  Paris  became  judge  of  their  respective  merits. 
How  is  she  described  ?  With  a  pale,  ghastly  look ;  her  gar« 
ments  torn,  her  eyes  sparkle  with  fire,  and  ki  her  bosom  a  daggci 

23 


266  MYTHOLOGY. 

is  concealed.  Her  head  is  generally  entwined  with  serpentS; 
and  she  is  attended  by  Bellona ;  one  of  her  bloody  hands  holds 
a  flaming  torch,  the  other  grasps  a  scroll  on  which  is  inscribed, 
wars  and  discord.  How  was  the  goddess  of  strength  honored  1 
As  a  divinity,  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Themis,  and  sister  of 
Temperance ;  she  is  represented  as  an  armed  Amazon,  who  with 
one  hand  clasps  a  column,  the  other  holds  a  branch  of  the  oak. 
Who  was  Peace  ?  The  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Themis,  pre- 
siding over  the  golden  age ;  she  was  worshipped  at  Rome.  She 
is  represented  holding  in  one  hand  the  horn  of  plenty,  in  tlie 
other  an  olive-branch ;  sometimes  she  holds  a  lighted  torch 
downwards,  and  some  ears  of  corn ;  the  little  god  Plutus  rests 
on  her  bosom.  What  is  said  of  Victory  ?  She  is  supposed  to 
be  the  daughter  of  Titan  and  Styx ;  and  was  greatly  honored 
by  the  Greeks,  particularly  at  Athens.  She  is  represented  w  ith 
wings,  crowned  with  laurel,  and  holding  a  branch  of  palm  in 
her  hand ;  she  stands  on  a  globe,  to  signify  that  Victory  governs 
the  world.  Who  was  Hope  ?  She  was  the  sister  of  Sleep, 
who  makes  us  forget  our  misfortunes,  and  of  Death,  and  was 
highly  honored  by  the  Romans  under  the  form  of  a  young  nymph, 
crowned  with  budding  flowers.  Green  is  her  favorite  color,  an 
emblem  of  the  verdure  which  precedes  the  blossoms  and  fruit ; 
her  altars  show  that  hope  is  but  a  fleeting  joy.  What  is  said 
of  Truth  ?  She  was  the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Time,  and 
mother  of  Virtue ;  she  is  represented  as  very  young,  simply 
dressed,  with  a  noble  air,  and  eyes  which  shine  hke  brilliants. 
She  holds  in  her  left  hand  an  open  book,  with  a  branch  of  palm ; 
in  her  right  a  mirror,  which  is  sometimes  ornamented  with 
flowers  and  precious  stones,  to  show  that  truth  can  be  embel- 
lished. What  does  fable  say  of  the  divinity  called  Virtue? 
She  was  represented  very  young,  and  modest,  but  with  a  manner 
which  commanded  respect ;  dressed  in  white,  as  an  emblem  of 
her  purity  ;  she  Isolds  a  spade,  a  sceptre,  and  a  crown  of  laurel, 
trophies  of  her  conflicts,  her  power,  and  the  gratitude  which  is 
due  to  her.  How  were  the  principal  virtues  distinguished  among 
the  Romans  ?  Each  by  their  attire  :  Patience,  was  known  by 
her  rule,  and  her  pointing  to  a  globe  at  her  feet ;  Temperance 
had  a  bridle ;  Justice  held  an  equal  balance  ;  and  Fortitude 
leaned  against  her  sword  ;  Honesty  was  clad  in  a  transparent 
robe ;  Modesty  appeared  veiled ;  Clemency  wore  an  olive-branch; 
and  Devotion  threw  incense  upon  an  altar ;  Tranquillity  was 
seen  to  lean  on  a  column  ;  Health  was  known  by  her  serpent  ,* 
Liberty  by  her  cap  ;  and  Gayety  by  her  myrtle. 

What  are  divinities  of  the  third  order  ?    The  divinities  of  th# 


MYTHOLOGY  2G7 

tliii'd  order  coiaprise  gods  who  derived  their  origin  from  a  god 
or  goddess,  and  heroes  whose  great  virtues  or  superior  talenta 
have  raised  them  to  the  rank  of  divinities,  such  as  Perseus, 
Hercules,  Jason,  Theseus,  Castor  and  Pollux,  Bellerophon,  Es- 
culapius,  Orpheus,  Cadmus,  etc.  These  divinities  dwelt  upon 
earth. 

Who  was  Perseus  ?  Perseus  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Danae.  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos,  imprisoned  his  daughter  Da- 
nae  in  a  tower  of  brass,  in  the  belief  of  an  oracle,  which  had 
announced  to  him  that  his  son-in-law  would  some  day  seize  his 
crown  and  destroy  him.  But  Jupiter,  transformed  into  golden 
rain,  that  is  to  say,  after  having  corrupted  the  keepers  of  the 
princess,  penetrated  into  the  tower,  and  by  him  Danae  gave  birth 
to  Perseus.  What  did  Acrisius  do  ?  Acrisius,  informed  of  tte 
birth  of  Perseus,  caused  him  to  be  exposed  with  his  mother  to 
the  mercy  of  the  waves  in  a  frail  skiff.  Danae  and  her  son 
were  cast  upon  the  coast  of  the  little  island  of  Seriphus,  one  of 
the  Cyclades.  Polydectus,  king  of  this  isle,  received  the  young 
Perseus  and  brought  him  up  carefully.  How  did  Polydectus 
banish  Perseus  from  his  court  ?  Polydectus  falling  in  love 
with  Danae,  sought  to  remove  Perseus  from  his  court :  to  ac  - 
complish  it,  he  ordered  him  to  combat  the  Gorgons  who  deso- 
lated the  country  near  the  garden  of  Hesperides,  and  to  bring 
him  the  head  of  Medusa,  in  the  hope  that  he  would  perish  in 
the  enterprise.  What  arms  did  Perseus  receive  ?  Perseus,  be- 
loved of  the  gods,  received  for  his  success  in  this  expedition  a 
mirror  from  Minerva,  wings  and  a  cimeter  from  Mercury,  and 
from  Pluto  his  helmet.  This  helmet  and  glass  had  the  property 
of  rendering  the  wearer  invisible.  Relate  the  defeat  of  the 
Gorgons.  The  Gorgons  were  three  sisters,  called  Medusa, 
Euryale,  and  Steno.  They  were  daughters  of  the  sea-god  Pho- 
reus  and  of  Ceto,  both  children  of  Neptune.  Between  the  three 
they  had  but  one  eye  and  one  tooth,  Avhich  they  used  by  turns 
The  tooth  was  longer  than  a  wild  boar's  tusk.  Their  hands 
were  of  brass,  their  hair  was  in  the  form  of  serpents ;  with 
merely  a  look  they  killed  men  or  petrified  them.  By  the  aid 
of  his  sacred  weapons,  Perseus  attacked  ihese  monsters,  con- 
quered them,  and  cut  off  Medusa's  head.  What  became  of 
this  head  ?  He  always  carried  it  with  him  in  all  his  ex- 
peditions, and  petrified  his  enemies  by  using  it.  From  the 
blood  which  ran  from  the  head  of  Medusa,  Pegasus  was  born, 
who  immediately,  with  a  stroke  of  his  foot,  caused  the  foun- 
tain of  Hippocrene  to  spring  up.  It  is  also  said  that  the  dropg 
of  blood  which  fell  from  the  head,  as  Perseus  bore  it  to  Poly- 


268  MYTHOLOGV. 

dectus,  were  transformed  into  the  numbers  of  sei-pents  whick 
infested  Lybia.  Against  whom  did  he  make  a  trial  of  Medusa's 
head?  Perseus,  mounted  on  Pegasus,  transported  himself 
through  the  air  into  Mauritania,  where  Atlas  reigned.  This 
prince,  owner  of  the  garden  of  Hesperides,  having  been  warned 
by  an  oracle  to  beware  of  a  son  of  Jupiter,  refused  the  young 
hero  hospitality.  But  Perseus  punished  him  immediately  by 
showing  him  Medusa's  head,  which  petrified  him  and  changed 
him  into  a  monster  which  bears  his  name.  Perseus  afterwards 
carried  off  the  golden  apples  of  the  garden  of  Hesperides. 
Why  is  it  said  that  Atlas  carried  the  heavens  ?  Poets  say  that 
Atlas  supports  the  heavens  upon  his  shoulders,  perhaps  because 
Mount  Atlas  is  surrounded  with  clouds ;  perhaps  as  a  cele- 
brated astronomer,  the  inventor  of  the  spheres,  was  named  At- 
las. How  did  Perseus  deHver  Andromeda  ?  Powerful  in  his 
terrible  weapons,  Perseus  undertook  to  deliver  Andromeda. 
This  princess,  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king  of  Ethiopia,  and  of 
Cassiopeia,  had  been  exposed  on  the  seaside  to  be  devoured 
by  a  monster  of  the  ocean,  as  a  punishment  for  her  temerity  in 
having  disputed  the  prize  of  beauty  with  Juno  and  the  Nere- 
ides ;  Perseus,  mounted  upon  Pegasus,  killed  or  petrified  the 
monster.  How  did  Cepheus  reAvard  Perseus  ?  Cepheus,  the 
father  of  Andromeda,  gave  his  daughter  in  mariiage  to  her 
deliverer.  Perseus,  however,  was  forced  to  achieve  a  second 
conquest  in  a  combat  with  Phineas,  the  uncle  of  Andromeda, 
who  had  the  audacity  to  carry  her  off.  The  hero,  always  vic- 
torious over  all  his  enemies,  consecrated  the  head  of  Medusa  to 
Minerva,  upon  whose  invincible  aegis  it  was  afterwards  graven." 
What  was  the  end  of  Acrisius  and  Perseus  ?  Although  Per- 
seus had  cause  to  complain  of  his  grandfather,  Acrisius,  he 
re-established  him  on  his  throne,  whence  he  had  been  driven 
by  his  brother,  Proetus,  and  killed  the  usurper.  But  a  short 
time  after,  in  displaying  his  dexterity  at  quoits,  Perseus  struck 
Acrisius  dead  upon  the  spot.  He  felt  such  poignant  grief  at 
this  accident,  that  he  left  Argos  and  founded  a  new  city  which 
he  called  Mycenoe,  where  he  was  treasonably  murdered  by  Me- 
gapenthe,  son  of  Proetus,  who  thus  revenged  his  father's  death. 
The  people  of  MycenoD  and  Argos  raised  heroic  monuments 
to  his  memory.  Jupiter  placed  him  in  the  heavens  among 
the  northern  constellations  with  Andromeda,  Cassiopeia,  and 
Cepheus. 

Relate  the  circumstances  of  Hercules*  birth.  Hercules  and 
Eurystheus  were  sons  of  Alcmena,  wife  of  Amphitryon,  king  of 
Thebes.     These  twm-brothers  were  born  while  this  prince  wa.<J 


JIYTHOLOGY.  269 

at  war.  The  father  of-  Eiirystheus  was  Amphitrj^on,  of  Her- 
cules, Japiter,  who  had  profited  by  the  king's  absence,  and  de-< 
ceived  his  wife,  appearing  to  her  under  the  form  of  her  hus- 
band. What  persecutions  did  Hercules  suffer  from  Juno  ? 
The  implacable  Juno,  aware  of  Jupiter's  infidelity,  exerted  all 
the  efforts  of  her  jealous  fuiy  against  Hercules.  Having  made 
Jupiter  swear  that  the  first-born  of  the  two  children  should 
command  the  other,  she  did  not  fail  to  cause  Eurystheus  to  be 
born  before  Hercules.  To  give  warning  proof  of  the  hatred 
she  bore  the  latter,  she  sent  two  serpents  tc  devour  him  in  his 
cradle.  The  young  Hercules,  without  showing  the  least  fear, 
tore  them  to  pieces,  showing  from  his  birth  that  he  was  worthy 
to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter.  Was  not  Juno's  hatred  appeased  ? 
It  is  said  that  at  the  entreaties  of  Pallas,  Juno  was  calmed,  and 
that  she  even  consented  to  nourish  the  infant  with  her  milk  to 
render  it  immortal,  and  that  Hercules  suffered  this  sacred  milk 
to  fall,  which  formed  the  white  pathway  in  the  heavens,  called 
the  milky  way.  Who  were  Hercules'  masters?  Hercules  had 
many  masters.  He  learned  archery  from  Rhadamanthus,  to 
fight  in  full  armor  from  Castor,  and  from  the  Centaur  Chiron 
astronomy  and  medicine.  Lastly,  Linus  taught  him  to  play 
upon  the  lyre.  It  is  said  that,  irritated  one  day  by  the  repri- 
mands of  tlie  latter,  Hercules  threw  his  intrument  at  his  head 
and  killed  him  instantly.  Who  are  called  Heraclides  ?  Her- 
cules had  a  great  many  children  known  under  the  name  of 
Herachdes.  It  is  said  that  to  avenge  their  father  for  the  per- 
secutions he  had  suffered  from  Euiystheus,  they  took  arms 
against  him  and  killed  him.  After  having  been  often  driven 
from  Peloponnesus,  they  returned  there  finally  and  occupied 
the  country  until  then  held  by  the  Pelopides.  It  is  thus  that 
they  are  called  th3  descendants  of  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  sons- 
in-law  of  Pelops.  What  are  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules  ?  ■ 
Eurystheus,  at  the  instigation  of  Juno,  commanded  Hercules 
to  expose  himself  to  the  most  imminent  dangers,  persuaded 
that  he  would  perish  in  the  end.  These  are  what  are  called 
the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules.  What  was  the  first  ?  A  lion 
of  immense  size  had  taken  refuge  in  the  forest  of  Nemea 
and  devastated  the  country.  Hercules  attacked  this  mon- 
ster;  after  many  useless  efforts  he  seized  him,  tore  him  to 
pieces  with  his  hands  and  dragged  off  the  skin,  which  after- 
wards served  him  as  garment  and  shieli.  What  was  the  sec- 
ond ?  In  the  moiass  of  Lerna,  near  Argos,  a  city  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, there  was  a  hydra  more  terrible  than  this  hon.  This 
monster  had  seven  heads ;  when  one  was  cut  off  several  imme- 

23^ 


270  MYTHOLOGY. 

diately  took  its  place.  Hercules  destroyed  them  all  with  a 
single  blow  of  his  club,  and  steeped  his  arrows  in  the  hydra's 
blood  to  make  them  fatal.  What  was  the  third  labor?  A 
cruel  wild  boar,  which  dwelt  on  Mount  Erymanthus,  ravaged 
all  the  suri'ounding  country:  Hercules  took  him  alive,  and 
brought  him  to  Eurystheus,  who  on  seeing  him  nearly  died  of 
fright.  What  was  the  fourth  ?  Mt.  Menalus  served  as  a  retreat 
for  a  hind,  with  brazen  feet  and  golden  horns,  so  light  in  the 
chase  that  no  one  had  been  able  to  catch  her :  Hercules,  not 
wishing  to  pierce  her  with  his  arrows,  because  she  was  sacred 
to  Diana,  at  last  took  her,  after  a  whole  year's  pursuit,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  her  crossing  the  river  Ladon.  The  hero  carried  her  on 
his  shoulders  to  Mycenae  and  offered  her  to  Eurystheus.  What 
was  the  fifth?  Immense  birds  covered  Lake  Stymphalus,  in 
Arcadia;  they  threw  darts  of  iron  against  those  who  attacked 
them.  Hercules  exterminated  them  with  his  arrows.  They 
were  so  numerous  and  of  such  extraordinary  size  that  their 
wings  intercepted  the  light  of  the  sun.  What  was  the  sixth  ? 
The  Amazons  were  warlike  women  who  inhabited  the  shores  of 
the  river  Thermidon,  in  Thrace ;  they  exercised  their  daughters 
in  managing  arms,  and  strangled  or  killed  their  male  children. 
Eurystheus  had  commanded  Hercules  to  bring  him  the  girdle 
of  Hippolyta,  queen  of  the  Amazons.  The  hero  penetrated  into 
the  country  of  these  warriors,  conquered  them,  and  took  their 
queen  prisoner.  What  was  the  seventh  ?  Hercules  delivered 
the  earth  from  two  famous  tyrants,  Diomed  and  Busiris,  who 
had  committed  awful  highway  outrages.  Relate  the  history  of 
Diomed.  Diomed,  king  of  Thrace,  son  of  Mars  and  the  nymph 
Cyrene,  had  some  furious  horses  which  vomited  fire.  He  fed 
them  with  human  flesh,  and  gave  them  all  the  strangers  who 
were  so  unfortunate  as  to  fall  into  his  hands  to  devour.  Her- 
•jules  took  Diomed,  and  alloAved  his  own  horses  to  devour  him. 
These  furious  animals  were  afterwards  brought  to  Eurystheus. 
Relate  the  history  of  Busiris.  Busiris,  king  of  Spain,  celebrated 
for  his  cruelty,  offered  the  strangers  who  landed  on  his  coasts 
to  Jupiter.  It  is  said,  that  havmg  heard  the  beauty  and 
wisdom  of  the  daughters  of  Atlas  boasted  of,  he  caused  them 
to  be  carried  off  by  pirates ;  but  Hercules  followed  the  ravish- 
ers,  put  them  to  death,  and  went  into  Spain  to  kill  Busiris. 
What  is  the  eighth  labor  of  Hercules  ?  Geryon,  son  of  Chrysaor 
and  Callirhoe,  reigned  over  Betica.  Poets  have  made  him  a 
giant,  with  three  bodies,  who  had  his  flocks  guarded  by  a  dog 
with  two  heads,  and  by  a  dragon  with  seven.  It  is  said  that 
Geryon  fed  his  oxen  on  human  flesh.    Hercules  killed  him,  with 


MYTHOLOGY.  271 

his  piotectors,  and  earned  off  his  oxen.  What  is  the  ninth? 
Augias,  king  of  Elidus,  and  son  of  the  Sun,  had  stables  which 
contained  three  thousand  oxen ;  they  had  not  been  cleansed  for 
thirty  years.  Hercules  turned  the  river  Alpheus  from  its  course 
and  made  it  run  through  the  stables.  He  presented  himself 
afterwards  to  Augias  to  receive  the  reward  of  his  labor ;  being 
refused,  Hercules,  enraged,  pillaged  the  city  of  Elis,  and  killed 
the  ungrateful  prince.  What  is  the  tenth  ?  Neptune,  wishing 
to  destroy  the  whole  of  Greece,  had  sent  a  furious  bull,  blowing 
flames  from  his  nostrils,  into  the  states  of  Minos.  Hercules 
proved  his  great  skill  and  address  in  overpoivering  this  monster. 
What  is  the  eleventh  ?  Eurystheus  insisted  that  Hercules 
should  go  and  seek  the  golden  apples  in  the  garden  of  Hespe- 
rides.  The  trees  which  bore  this  precious  fruit  were  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  a  horrible  monster,  with  a  hundred  heads,  and 
breathing  a  hundred  sorts  of  breaths  at  once.  Hercules  killed 
the  dragon,  and  took  the  golden  apples  to  Eurystheus.  What 
was  the  twelfth  ?  Theseus,  for  having  dared  to  descend  into 
the  infernal  regions  with  his  friend  Pirithous,  to  carry  off  Pro- 
serpine, was  kept  prisoner  there.  Hercules  chained  Cerberus, 
and  delivered  Theseus.  What  did  Hercules  do  after  his  twelve 
labors  ?  After  having  happily  finished  his  twelve  labors,  Her- 
cules, thinking  he  had  still  not  done  enough  for  his  glory,  over- 
ran the  universe  to  cleanse  it  from  monsters  and  tyrants,  and  to 
relieve  the  miseries  of  the  human  species.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  enumerate  all  the  memorable  actions  he  accomplished  in  this 
glorious  expedition.  Every  country,  and  almost  every  city  in 
Greece,  is  honored  by  having  been  the  theatre  of  some  marvel- 
lous deed  of  this  hero.  We  will  relate  some  of  them.  Relate 
the  history  of  Ceeus.  Cseus,  son  of  Vulcan,  was  a  famous 
brigand,  who  had  retired  into  Mt.  Aventin,  one  of  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome.  One  day  he  dared  to  steal  the  oxen  of  Hercules, 
and  made  them  enter  his  cave  backwards,  that  their  footsteps 
might  not  be  traced.  Hercules,  hearing  them  bellow,  ran 
directly  to  ihc  cave ;  Cseus  in  vain  vomited  clouds  of  fire  and 
smoke,  Hercules  seized  him  in  his  strong  hands  and  strangled 
him.  Who  was  Anteus  ?  The  giant  Anteus,  son  of  Neptune  and 
the  Eartli,  massacred  all  the  travellers  who  crossed  the  sands 
"bf  Lybia.  He  had  vowed  to  build  a  temple  to  Neptune,  his 
father,  with  the  skulls  of  men.  Hercules,  provoked  by  Anteus, 
threw  him  to  the  earth  three  times,  but  in  vain ;  for  the  Earth, 
his  mother,  gave  him  new  strength  every  time  he  touched  her. 
The  hero,  to  put  an  end  to  him,  raised  him  up  and  smothered 
hun  m  his  arms.     What  were  the  Pigmies?     The  Pigmies, 


272  MYTHOLOGY. 

fable  tells  us,  were  but  two  feet  high,  and,  accoraiug  to  th6 
poets,  existed  in  Thrace.  An  army  of  these  little  men  attacked 
Hercules,  who  was  sleeping,  after  the  defeat  of  the  giant  Anteus, 
Hercules  awoke,  laughing  at  the  project  of  this  swarm  of  ants,, 
wrapped  them  in  his  lion's  skin,  and  carried  them  to  Eurystheus. 
What  of  Admetus  and  Alceste  ?  Alceste,  wife  of  Admetus, 
king  of  Thessaly,  was  the  most  perfect  model  of  conjugal  love. 
Her  husband  was  in  danger  of  death,  and  she  had  the  courage 
to  offer  herself  up  to  death,  if  the  gods  would  save  him.  This 
generous  sacrifice  was  made,  and  Admetus  restored  to  ]ife. 
Fable  says  that  Hercules  struggled  with  Death,  and  ■  bound 
him  with  chains  of  diamond,  until  he  would  consent  to  restore 
Alceste  to  the  light.  What  other  exploits  are  attributed  to 
Hercules  ?  Hercules  also  overran  the  earth,  ever}^where  re- 
heving  distress,  and  delivering  men  from  the  calamities  which 
oppressed  them.  It  is  he  who  delivered  Prometheus,  breaking 
the  chains  which  bound  him  to  Mt.  Caucasus.  How  did  he 
mark  the  end  of  his  travels  ?  Hercules,  having  penetrated  to 
Gades,  now  Cadiz,  thought  he  had  arrived  at  the  end  of  the 
earth.  He  separated  two  mountains,  which  touched  each  other, 
to  make  the  MediteiTanean  communicate  with  the  ocean :  one  is 
called  Calpe,  in  Europe ;  the  other  Abyla,  in  Africa.  It  was  thus 
that  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  were  formed.  These  mountains 
were  called  the  hills  of  Hercules.  He  made  this  inscription 
there,  "  Ne  plus  ultra" — nothing  further.  What  did  Juno  do? 
So  much  glory  only  served  to  redouble  the  fury  of  Juno  against 
Hercules.  This  goddess,  always  carried  away  by  jealousy, 
excited  the  hero  to  such  an  excess  of  anger  that  he  killed  his 
wife,  Megara,  and  his  own  children :  returned  to  his  senses,  he 
would  have  put  an  end  to  himself,  if  his  friends  had  not  pre- 
vented him.  To  what  last  means  did  Juno  resort  ?  Furious  to 
see  Hercules  triumphing  over  all  his  enemies,  and  coming  off 
victorious  in  the  most  perilous  enterprises,  Juno  entreated  Love 
to  avenge  her.  This  god  inspired  Hercules  with  the  most 
violent  passion  for  Omphale,  queen  of  Lydia ;  the  conqueror  of 
so  many  monsters  did  not  blush  to  clothe  himself  in  woman's 
garments  and  bow  at  the  feet  of  Omphale.  Did  he  not  love 
Dejanira?  Hercules  afterwards  became  deeply  enamored  of 
Dejanira.  This  princess  had  been  affianced  to  the  river  Ache-* 
lous.  Hercules  conquered  his  rival  in  single  combat,  during 
which  Achelous  was  by  turns  transformed  into  a  serpent,  a  bull, 
and  a  man  with  the  head  of  an  ox.  After  having  married  De 
janira,  he  was  conducting  her  home,  when  he  was  arrested  by 
the  river  Evena,  whose  waters  were  very  thick  and  dangeroua. 


MYTHOLOGY.  273 

Who  offered  to  carry  Dejanira  over?  The  centaur  Xessus 
offered  to  carry  Dejanira  over  on  his  back ;  Hercules  consented 
to  it,  and  crossed  the  river  first.  Arrived  on  the  other  side,  he 
saw  that  the  centaur  intended  to  carry  Dejanira  off,  and  he 
pierced  him  immediately  with  his  arrows,  poisoned  with  the 
blood  of  the  hydra  of  Lerna.  How  was  Nessus  revenged? 
Kessus  tried  to  avenge  himself  before  he  died,  and  to  effect 
this,  he  presented  Dejanira  with  a  robe  bathed  in  his  blood, 
assuring  her  that  if  Hercules  once  wore  this  robe,  he  would 
never  love  any  other  woman  than  herself.  What  use  did  De- 
janira make  of  it  ?  This  too  credulous  woman,  informed  that 
her  husband  preferred  Tola,  daughter  of  Eurytus,  king  of 
CElchalia,  to  herself,  sent  the  tunic  of  Nessus  to  him  by  a  young 
slave,  called  Lichas.  How  did  Hercules  receive  it  ?  Hercules, 
then  occupied  with  sacrificial  rites  upon  Mt.  Etna,  received  this 
fatal  present  with  joy.  He  had  no  sooner  put  on  the  poisoned 
robe  than  he  felt  himself  scorching  with  violent  heat,  and  torn 
by  the  most  cruel  torments.  He  became  furious,  seized  Lichas 
and  threw  him  into  the  sea,  where  he  was  changed  into  a  rock. 
Kelate  the  circumstances  of  his  last  moments.  Feeling  his  last 
hour  approaching,  he  gave  to  Philoctetus  the  arrows  steeped 
in  the  blood  of  the  hydra  of  Lerna,  without  which  the  Fates 
had  declared  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken.  Himself  cutting 
the  trees  on  Mt.  Etna,  he  made  of  them  a  funeral  pile,  on  which 
he  finished  his  glorious  career.  Dejanira  regretted  so  deeply 
the  death  of  Hercules  that  she  destroyed  herself.    What  honors 

vere  rendered  to  Hercules?  After  his  death  Hercules  was 
placed  among  the  ranks  of  the  gods,  and  received  into  heaven, 
where  he  married  Hebe,  goddess  of  youth.  The  people  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  witnesses  of  his  great  deeds,  erected  temples 
<-o  him,  of  which  one  of  the  most  celebrated,  situated  at  Rome, 
was  called  the  Temple  of  the  great  Hercules.  It  is  said  that 
neither  dog  nor  fly  ever  entered  there.  What  other  name  is 
given  to  Hercules  ?  Hercules  is  often  called  Alcides,  that  is, 
son  of  Alceus,  his  maternal  grandfather.  How  is  he  repre- 
sented ?  This  hero  is  represented  under  the  form  of  a  strong 
and  robust  man,  covered  with  the  skin  of  the  Nemean  lion,  and 
leaning  on  his  club.  He  sometimes  wears  a  crown  of  white 
poplar,  a  tree  which  was  sacred  to  him,  because  he  bound  his 
head  with  its  leaves  on  going  down  into  hell. 

_  Whose  son  was  Theseus  ?  The  father  of  Theseus  was  ^geus, 
king  of  Athens ;  the  mother  was  ^]thra,  daughter  of  Pittiieus, 
king  of  Peloponnesus ;  he  was  the  relation  and  contemporary  of 
Hercules.     Is  he  not  also  considered   the  son  of  Neptune? 


274  MYTHOLOGY. 

Some  poets  give  him  Neptune  for  father,  and  found  this  opinion 
upon  the  following  fable.  Theseus,  wishing  to  prove  to  Minos^ 
king  of  Crete,  that  he  was  descended  fiom  Neptune,  cast  his 
ring  into  the  sea,  and  threw  himself  immediately  after  it  into 
the  waves,  and  brought  it  back  with  a  crown  which  Amphi- 
tryon had  placed  on  his  head.  This  is  not  to  be  believed, 
as  it  denies  the  rest  of  the  history  of  Theseus.  What  were 
the  deeds  of  Theseus'  infancy  ?  ^geus,  leaving  Pelopon- 
nesus to  return  to  Athens,  his  w^ife  remained  on  her  father't 
estates.  yEthra  was  pregnant.  JEgeus  hid  his  sword  undei 
an  enormous  stone,  and  instructed  her,  that  if  she  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  not  to  send  him  to  him  until  he  should  be  strong  enough 
to  lift  the  stone,  and  take  thence  the  sword — by  which  he  should 
be  recognised.  Theseus  was  hardly  sixteen  years  of  age  when 
he  girded  himself  with  the  sword  of  ^geus ;  and  informed  by 
his  mother  of  his  origin,  departed  to  join  his  father.  Did  not 
Theseus  imitate  Hercules  ?  Before  avowing  himself  heir  to  the 
throne  of  Athens,  he  resolved  to  make  himself  worthy  of  it. 
The  glory  and  virtues  of  Hercules  excited  his  courage.  Jealous 
of  imitating  the  great  actions  of  this  hero,  he  delivered  Attica 
from  brigands  and  monsters,  which  infested  the  roads  and  made 
them  very  dangerous.  What  events  happened  at  Athens  ? 
Arrived  at  Athens,  Theseus  found  this  city  in  strange  confusion. 
Medea,  whose  crimes  had  caused  her  to  be  driven  from  Corinth, 
had  fled,  and  was  governing  under  the  name  of  ^geus ;  fa- 
vored by  the  indiscreet  passion  she  had  inspired  in  the  king. 
Thinking  that  the  presence  of  a  stranger,  celebrated  for  his 
exploits,  would  affect  her  projects  of  becoming  mistress  of  the 
throne,  she  tried  to  make  him  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  king ; 
and  determined  him  to  have  him  poisoned  in  the  midst  of  a 
feast.  At  the  moment  when  Theseus  was  on  the  point  of  swal- 
lowing the  poison,  ^geus  recognised  his  son  by  the  sight  of 
his  sword.  He  drove  Medea  from  his  presence,  thus  discover- 
ing and  punishing  her  perfidious  designs.  What  did  Theseus 
then  do?  Theseus,  declared  heir  to  the  throne  of  Athens, 
showed  his  courage  against  certain  infamous  rascals,  whose 
crimes  merited  a  cruel  chastisement.  Among  them  were  Phal- 
aris,  Scyron,  Procrustes,  Periphetus,  Cercyon,  etc.  Phalaris, 
tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  had  forged  a  brazen  bull,  in  which 
those  he  had  condemned  to  death  were  burned  by  a  slow  fire. 
This  monster  was  amused  by  the  cries  of  his  victims,  which 
were  like  the  bellowing  of  cattle.  Who  made  the  first  trial  of 
this  ?  It  is  said  that  Perillus,  the  author  of  this  horrible  in- 
Tention,  made  the  first  trial  of  it.     It  was  thus  that  the  tyrant 


MYTHOLOGY.  275 

paid  him  his  promised  salary.  Phalarls  was  massacred  by 
Theseus.  What  is  said  of  Scyron  ?  Scyron,  a  famous  brigand 
who  ravaged  Attica,  not  content  with  robbing  iravellers,  con- 
ducted them  to  a  rock  from  the  top  of  which  he  precipitated 
them  into  the  sea.  They  were  devoured  by  tortoises,  which 
Scyron  thus  fattened  on  human  flesh.  Theseus  destroyed  him  and 
burned  his  bones,  which  he  sacrificed  to  Jupiter.  Relate  the 
history  of  Procrustes.  Procrustes  practised  the  most  horrible 
cruelties  in  Attica.  The  wretch  stretched  his  guests  on  an  iron 
bed,  cut  oft'  the  extremities  of  their  legs  when  they  were  longer 
than  the  bed,  or  stretched  them  with  cords  until  they  should 
reach  the  end  of  it.  He  shared  the  same  fate  as  Phalaris  and 
Scyron.  Who  was  Periphetus  ?  Periphetus,  son  of  Yulcan, 
had  established  himself  in  the  environs  of  Epidaurus,  where  he 
attacked  travellers.  Theseus,  going  from  Trezena  to  Corinth, 
killed  him  and  seized  his  club,  which  he  always  carried 
afterwards  as  a  memento  of  this  victory.  What  is  related 
of  Cercyon?  Cercyon,  also  called  Simus,  was  devastating 
Attica.  Endowed  with  extraordinary  strength,  he  bent 
the  largest  trees,  by  pulhng  down  the  tops  and  fastening  to 
them  those  he  had  overcome  in  fight.  The  trees  rising  again, 
tore  his  victims  to  pieces.  Theseus  made  him  undergo  this 
cruel  punishment  himself.  What  monsters  did  Theseus  de- 
stroy ?  Theseus,  conqueror  of  these  tyrants,  turned  his  valor 
against  many  monsters.  He  had  the  glory  of  delivering  the  earth 
from  an  enormous  bull  which  made  great  ravages  in  the  fields 
of  Marathon.  He  caught  and  killed  the  wild  boar  of  Calydan, 
which  Diana  had  sent  against  the  Etolians  to  punish  them  for 
having  neglected  her  worship.  Finally,  he  destroyed  the  Mino- 
taur, a  monster  half  man  and  half  bull.  What  is  related  of 
Minotaur  ?  Pasiphae,  daughter  of  the  Sun,  and  wife  of  Minos, 
king  of  Crete,  had  brought  him  into  the  world.  Minos  kept 
him  shut  up  in  the  labyrinth  of  the  island  of  Crete.  This  mon- 
ster was  only  fed  on  human  flesh.  The  Athenians  were  obliged 
to  send  seven  young  boys,  drawn  by  lot,  every  year,  for  the 
food  of  the  Minotaur.  Who  had  imposed  this  punishment  upon 
them  ?  This  horrible  tribute  was  imposed  upon  them  by  Mi- 
nos, to  avenge  the  death  of  his  son  Androgens,  whom  the  young 
Athenians  had  killed,  in  jealousy  for  his  constant  success  in  the 
public  games.  The  tribute  had  already  been  paid  three  times, 
'  when  Theseus,  to  free  his  country,  made  sail  for  Crete  to  com- 
bat the  Minotaur.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  Theseus'  expe- 
dition. He  could  not  succeed  in  his  enterprise  without  the  as- 
sistence  of  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Mmos,  who  was  passionately 


276  MYTHOLOGY. 

enamored  with  Theseus.  This  princess  gave  him  a  ball  of 
thread,  by  which  he  escaped  from  the  labyrinth  after  having 
killed  the  Minotaur.  Who  married  her  after  Theseus  ?  The- 
seus, who  had  brought  his  liberatress  with  him  on  leaving 
Crete,  left  her  on  the  isle  of  Naxos.  Bacchus,  coming  a  short 
time  after  into  this  isle,  consoled  her  for  Theseus'  infidehty,  and 
marrying  her,  presented  her  with  a  beautiful  golden  crown,  a 
master-piece  of  Vulcan's.  This  golden  crown  was  afterwards 
placed  among  the  stars.  What  was  this  labyrinth  ?  The  laby- 
rinth was  an  immense  enclosure  filled  with  chambers  and  ave- 
nues, and  offering  so  many  turns,  that  once  entered  there,  one 
could  never  find  egress.  How  many  labyrinths  were  there? 
There  have  been  two  celebrated  ones.  The  one  in  Egypt  was 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world ;  it  contained  three  thousand 
apartments  and  twelve  palaces,  and  was,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, the  work  of  twelve  kings.  The  other,  situated  in  the  island 
of  Crete,  near  the  city  of  Gnossa,  had  been  made  on  the  model 
of  that  in  Egypt,  to  serve  as  a  dwelling  for  the  Minotaur.  Who 
constructed  the  labyrinth  of  Crete  ?  Dedalus,  one  of  the  most 
able  artists  of  heroic  Greece,  planned  and  constructed  the  laby- 
rinth in  the  isle  of  Crete.  This  wise  architect  was  the  first  vic- 
tim of  his  invention  ;  for,  having  favored  the  infidelities  of  Pasi- 
phae,  wife  of  Minos,  this  king  shut  him  up  in  the  labyrinth 
with  his  son  Icarus  and  the  Minotaur.  How  did  Dedalus  and 
his  son  escape  ?  Resolved  to  escape  from  this  prison,  the  in- 
genious Dedalus  formed  artificial  wings  which  he  attached  to 
his  shoulders  and  those  of  Icarus,  with  wax ;  Dedalus,  by  tlie 
a^.d  of  his  wings,  freed  himself.  Icarus,  forgetting  the  wise  in- 
structions of  his  father,  approached  too  near  the  sun  ;  the  wax 
melted  upon  his  wings,  and  the  imprudent  youth  fell  into  the 
sea,  where  he  was  drowned.  Since  that  time  this  sea  has  been 
called  Icarien.  What  became  of  Dedalus  ?  The  unfortunate 
Dedalus  landed  in  Sicily;  others  say  in  Egypt.  The  king 
Coealus,  who  gave  him  an  asylum  at  first,  caused  him  after- 
wards to  be  stifled  in  a  stove,  to  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  the 
menaces  of  Minos.  What  more  is  attributed  to  Dedalus  ?  The 
invention  of  sails  is  attributed  to  Dedalus,  and  it  is  believed  that 
his  wings  are  an  allegory  upon  which  the  sails  of  a  vessel 
are  designed.  What  event  signalized  the  return  of  Theseus  ? 
When  Theseus  left  to  combat  the  Minotaur,  he  was  in  the 
same  vessel  which  conducted  the  seven  victims  offered  in  sacri-* 
fice  to  the  vengeance  of  Minos.  This  vessel  had  black  sails,  to 
express  the  grief  and  mourning  into  which  the  Athenians  were 
plunged,     ^geus  had  advised  Theseus  his  son,  if  ho  returned 


MYTHOLOGY.  277 

conqueror,  to  change  these  sails  into  white  ones.  Entirely  oc- 
cupied with  the  victory  which  he  had  just  gained,  Theseus  for- 
got this  advice  of  his  father's.  What  happened  ?  -^geus  per« 
ceiving  the  vessel  returning  with  black  sails,  believed  his  son 
dead,  and  only  thinking  of  his  grief,  plunged  himself  into  the 
sea.  The  Athenians  gave  his  name  to  the  ^gean  sea,  now 
called  the  Archipelago.  How  did  Theseus  thank  Apollo? 
Theseus  fulfilled  his  parting  vow  to  Apollo,  to  send  every 
year  an  offering  of  thanks  to  Delos.  Deputies  crowned  \Vith 
olive-branches  were  sent  there  every  year.  For  this  purpose  the 
same  vessel  which  had  borne  Theseus  was  usea  and  carefully 
kept  in  order,  so  that  it  was  always  ready  to  set  sail ;  for  which 
reason  the  poets  have  called  this  vessel  immortal.  Did  not 
Theseus  lay  aside  his  authority?  After  having  given  many 
wise  laws  to  the  Athenians,  Theseus  laid  aside  sovereign 
authority.  He  resumed  his  former  mode  of  lifc»  and  sought 
new  adventures.  What  occurred  at  the  wedding  of  Pirithous  ? 
Pirithous,  king  of  the  Lapithse,  having  married  Hippodamia, 
invited  the  Centaurs  to  assist  at  the  festival :  excited  by  wine, 
they  committed  the  greatest  excesses.  Hercules  and  Theseus 
did  not  leave  their  audacity  unpunished,  but  killed  a  great  num- 
ber of  them.  Who  were  the  Centaurs  ?  The  Centaurs  were 
men  celebrated  for  their  talent  in  the  art  of  riding.  They  were 
such  excellent  horsemen  that  they  appeared  to  be  but  of  one 
body  with  the  horse  they  rode.  Poets  have  also  said  that  they 
were  monsters,  half  man  and  half  horse.  The  most  celebrated 
of  the  Centaurs  was  Chiron,  not  less  skilful  in  medicine  than  in 
astronomy,  and  whose  disciples  were  the  principal  persons 
mentioned  in  fable.  How  was  Pirithous  connected  with 
Theseus  ?  Pirithous,  struck  with  the  recital  of  the  great  deeds 
of  Theseus,  wished  to  measure  his  strength  with  him,  and  defied 
him  to  single  combaf..  Theseus  accepted  the  challenge ;  but 
when  the  two  heroes  met,  seized  with  a  secret  admiration  for 
each  other,  they  embraced,  and  swore  eternal  friendship.  What 
war  did  Theseus  carry  on  with  Pirithous  ?  Theseus,  accompa- 
nied by  his  friend  Pirithous,  went  to  the  banks  of  the  river 
Thermidon  to  seek  the  Amazons,  to  have  the  glory  of  fighting 
them  as  Hercules  had  done.  After  having  conquered  them, 
the  Athenian  hero  married  their  queen  Antiope,  or  Hippolyta,, 
whom  lis  had  taken  prisoner.  By  her  he  was  father  of  the 
unfortunate  Hippolytus.  What  project  did  Theseus  and  Piri- 
thous afterwards  form  ?  The  two  friends,  after  their  victory 
over  the  Amazons,  fonned  the  project  of  carrying  off  the  beau- 
tiful Helen,  priestess  of  Diana,  whose  beauty  afterwards  caused 

24 


278  MYTHOLOGY. 

the  ruin  of  Troy.  This  enterprise  happily  terminated,  they 
drew  lots  for  the  princess,  on  condition  that  he  to  whose  lot 
she  fell  should  be  obliged  to  procure  another  wife  for  his  friend. 
To  whom  did  Helen  fall  ?  Helen  fell  to  the  lot  of  Theseus, 
who,  according  to  the  agreement  made,  resolved  to  go  with 
Pirithous  to  carry  off  Proserpine.  They  descended  together 
into  hell,  but  Cerberus  threw  himself  upon  Pirithous  and 
strangled  him.  As  for  Theseus,  he  was  loaded  with  chains 
and  kept  prisoner,  until  Hercules  came  to  his  deliverance. 
During  his  captivity,  Helen  was  freed  by  her  brothers  and 
taken  to  her  own  country,  Sparta,  where  she  became  the  wife 
of  Menekus.  Who  was  Theseus'  second  wife  ?  Happily  es- 
caped from  hell,  Theseus  married  Phedra,  daughter  of  Pasiphae 
and  Minos,  and  sister  of  Ariadne.  This  prince  brought  up,  at 
Trezene,  the  son  he  had  had  by  the  queen  of  the  Amazons. 
He  brought  his  new  wife  into  this  city.  Phedra  had  no  sooner 
seen  the  young  Hippolytus  than  she  felt  a  violent  passion  for 
him.  What  was  Hippolytus'  conduct  ?  Hippolytus,  only  occu- 
pied with  the  study  of  wisdom  and  the  amusements  of  hunting, 
had  drawn  upon  him  the  indignation  of  Venus,  who  swore  to 
punish  his  disdain.  Phedra,  excited  by  this  goddess,  dared  to 
declare  her  passion  to  the  young  prince;  despised,  spurned, 
and  furious,  she  arraigned  Hippolytus,  and  accused  him  before 
Theseus.  What  did  Theseus  do  ?  This  unhappy  father, 
deceived  and  abused  by  his  wife,  gave  up  his  son  to  the  ven- 
geance of  Neptune,  who  had  promised  to  grant  him  three  of 
his  desires.  Hippolytus,  travelHng  on  the  seaside,  was  over- 
turned in  his  chariot,  dragged  across  the  rocks,  and  torn  by  his 
horses,  which  were  terrified  at  the  sight  of  an  awful  monster 
coming  out  of  the  sea.  Was  he  no^  restored  to  life  ?  Accord- 
ing to  Ovid,  Esculapius  restored  Hippolytus  to  life,  and  Diana 
covered  him  with  a  cloud  to  conceal  his  flight  from  hell. 
Phedra,  torn  with  remorse,  acknowledged  her  calumny,  and 
destroyed  herself.  How  did  Theseus  die  ?  The  Athenians 
revolted  against  Theseus.  This  prince,  indignant  at  their 
ingratitude,  overwhelmed  Athens  with  curses,  and  retired  into 
the  isle  of  Scyros*  resolved  to  end  his  days  in  peace  there,  and 
in  private  life.  But  Lycomedes,  king  of  this  island,  jealous  ol' 
the  reputation  of  Theseus,  or  won  over  by  his  enemies,  caused 
him  to  be  precipitated  from  the  top  of  a  rock.  What  honors 
were  rendered  to  his  ashes  ?  The  Athenians,  many  centuries 
afterwards,  rendered  great  honor  to  the  ashes  of  Theseus, 
They  pretend  that  this  hero  appeared  to  them,  covered  with 
his  armor,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon.     His  remains  were  care- 


MYTHOLOGY.  279 

fully  sought,  and  they  found  in  the  place  where  tradition  said 
they  had  been  placed,  great  bones,  and  near  them  the  iron  of  a 
pike,  and  a  sword.  Cimon  caused  this  precious  deposite  to  be 
transported  to  Athens,  where  it  was  received  with  great  pomp. 
A  very  handsome  temple,  which  still  exists,  is  sacred  to  his 
memory. 

Relate  the  story  of  the  birth  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  It  is 
said  that  Leda,  the  wife  of  Tyndarus,  king  of  Sparta,  to  please 
whom  Jupiter  transformed  himself  into  a  swan,  laid  two  eggs, 
from  one  of  which  were  produced  Castor  and  Clytemnestra,  and 
from  the  other  Pollux  and  Helena.  The  first  two  were  mortal ; 
the  last  two,  immortal.  How  did  Castor  and  Pollux  distinguish 
themselves  ?  Pollux,  by  his  address  in  the  combats  of  the  Ces- 
tus  and  all  athletic  exercises  ;  Castor,  by  his  skill  in  taming 
horses.  Why  were  they  placed  among  the  sea-gods  ?  Because 
they  had  the  honor  of  clearing  the  Archipelago  from  the  pi- 
rates who  infested  it ;  and  for  this  reason  also  they  were  in- 
voked by  sailors  as  their  tutelary  deities.  For  this  reason  they 
sacrificed  white  lambs  to  them,  and  black  sheep  to  the  winds. 
What  exploits  have  rendered  them  famous  ?  The  two  brothers 
followed  Jason  to  Colchis,  and  had  a  share  in  the  conquest  of  the 
Golden  Fleece.  In  returning  to  their  own  country  they  recap- 
tured Helena,  their  sister,  who  had  been  seized  by  Theseus,  and 
also  took  captive  JEthra,  the  mother  of  that  hero.  In  what  en- 
terprise did  Castor  die  ?  They  had  carried  off  two  beautiful  sis- 
ters, betrothed  to  Lynceus  and  Idas,  who  fought  obstinately 
against  them.  Castor  was  killed  by  Lynceus,  who,  in  his  turn, 
fell  by  the  hand  of  Pollux.  Idas  was  killed  by  a  thunderbolt 
from  Jupiter.  What  did  Pollux  request  of  Jupiter  ?  He  be- 
sought Jupiter  to  render  Castor  immortal,  but  as  this  could 
not  be  entirely  granted,  he  obtained  permission  to  share  his  im- 
mortality with  his  brother,  and  they  lived  and  died  alternately. 
From  the  extraordinary  affection  they  bore  each  other,  their 
names  have  become  symbolical  of  fidternal  afi'ection.  How  is 
this  fiction  explained  ?  It  is  founded  on  the  behef  that  the  two 
princes,  after  death,  were  transformed  into  the  constellation 
called  the  "  Twins,''*  and  that  these  two  stars  never  appear  above 
the  horizon  at  the  same  time.  Whose  son  was  Jason  ?  He 
was  the  son  of  Eson,  king  of  Colchis,  in  Thessaly.  Eson  having 
been  dethroned  by  his  brother  Pehas,  Jason,  when  arrived  at 
manhood,  claimed  his  paternal  heritage.  Pehas,  to  put  off  this 
claim,  proposed  to  his  nephew  the  conquest  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  an  enterprise  full  of  glory  and  danger,  promising  to  re- 
itore  his  states  if  he  returned  victorious.   What  was  the  Golden 


280  MYTHOLOGY. 

Fleece?  It  was  taken  from  a  ram  with  which  the  gods  had 
presented  Athamas,  king  of  Thebes.  Phryxus  his  son,  flying 
from  the  ill-treatment  of  Ino  his  stepmother,  with  his  sister 
Hellas,  took  this  ram,  on  which  they  mounted  to  cross  the  arm 
of  the  sea  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia.  Hellas,  who 
was  frightened  by  the  noise  of  the  waves,  fell  into  the  sea,  and 
gave  her  name  to  the  strait,  "  the  Hellespont,"  now  the  Dar- 
danelles. What  became  of  Phryxus  ?  Overcome  by  fatigue, 
he  arrived  at  a  point  near  Colchis,  and  there  landed  and  slept. 
The  inhabitants  were  about  to  kill  him,  when  the  ram,  who  was 
emiowed  with  the  power  of  speech,  awoke  him.  Phryxus  then 
went  to  -^tus,  king  of  Colchis,  and  consecrated  to  Mars  the 
Golden  Fleece,  which  was  hung  upon  a  tree  in  a  wood  conse- 
crated to  that  god.  JEtus  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage, 
but  afterwards  becoming  envious  of  the  riches  of  his  son-in- 
law,  put  him  to  death  to  obtain  possession  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Who  aided  Jason  in  his  enterprise  ?  The  expedition  to  obtain 
the  Golden  Fleece  being  one  full  of  glory,  when  announced 
throughout  Greece,  attracted  to  Jason's  standard  the  most  re- 
nowned warriors,  anxious  to  partake  of  the  glory  of  the  enter- 
prise. Give  some  account  of  the  vessel  which  carried  them. 
They  embarked  in  a  vessel,  the  model  of  which  was  designed 
by  Minerva,  The  wood  was  cut  from  the  forest  of  Dodo- 
na,  which  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that  oracles  proceeded  from 
it.  It  was  called  the  Argo,  either  because  it  was  made  in  Ar- 
gos,  or  because  it  was  built  by  a  person  of  that  name.  Those 
who  embarked  in  it  were  called  the  Argonauts,  and  had  each 
their  particular  employment.  Typhis  had  charge  of  the  helm ; 
Lynceus,  who  had  very  sharp  sight,  had  the  look-out  for  rocks 
and  shoals;  and  Orpheus,  who  accompanied  them  with  his 
lyre,  alleviated  the  tedium  of  the  voyage  with  its  sweet  sounds. 
What  were  the  difficulties  of  the  enterprise  ?  Jason  had  first 
to  yoke  two  bulls,  a  present  from  Vulcan,  whose  horns  and 
hoofs  were  of  brass,  and  who  vomited  fire,  and  then  fasten 
them  to  a  diamond  plough,  and  make  them  plough  four  acres 
of  ground  to  sow  the  teeth  of  the  dragon  which  had  been  slain 
by  Cadmus;  and  from  which  were  to  spring  forth  armed 
men,  all  of  whom  he  must  slay.  Next,  he  must  kill  a  dragon 
\vhich  watched  over  the  preservation  of  the  Fleece ;  and  all  this 
work  was  to  be  done  in  one  day !  How  did  Jason  succeed  ? 
By  the  aid  of  Medea,  daughter  of  king  ^tus :  this  famous 
sorceress  put  the  dragon  to  sleep  by  her  enchantments,  and 
aided  the  young  warrior  whom  she  loved  to  overcome  the  other 
obstacles.     What  did  Jason  and  Medea  do  ?     As  soon  as  he 


MYTHOLOGY.  2S'i 

fained  possession  of  the  treasure,  he  fled  from  Colchis  wiih 
[edea,  to  avoid  her  father's  anger.  Pursued  by  the  king, 
they  cut  into  pieces  Absyrthus,  the  brother  of  Medea,  and 
strewed  the  ground  with  his  hmbs  to  retard  the  progress 
of  the  king.  They  arrived  in  the  dominions  of  Alcinous,  king 
of  Phoenicia,  where  their  marriage  was  celebrated ;  and  the 
new-married  couple  returned  in  triumph  to  Colchis.  What 
was  the  end  of  Pelias  ?  Having  refused  to  restore  to  Jason 
his  throne,  Medea  revenged  herself  on  him  by  causing  him 
to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  daughters.  How  was  this 
done  ?  Medea,  professing  the  secret  of  restoring  the  aged  to 
youth,  the  daughters  of  Pelias  requested  her  to  confer  this  fa- 
vor on  their  father.  Medea  desired  them  to  cut  their  father 
into  pieces,  and  then  boil  them  in  a  cauldron.  The  fire  de- 
stroyed them  entirely,  so  that  these  unfortunate  girls  could  not 
even  bury  their  father ;  nor  did  the  crime  benefit  Jason,  for  the 
daughters  of  Pelias  retained  the  throne  by  force.  What  fault 
did  Jason  commit  ?  After  having  lived  ten  years  most  happily 
with  Medea,  forgetting  his  vows  to  her,  he  became  in  love  with 
Glaucus,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Corinth,  married  her  and 
divorced  Medea.  How  did  Medea  avenge  herself  ?  She  was 
furious,  but  dissembled  her  anger,  and  sent  her  rival  ar  robe  cov- 
ered with  diamonds.  This  robe,  which  had  been  steeped  in 
the  most  subtile  poisons,  destroyed  the  unfortunate  Glaucus. 
Jason  would  have  punished  her,  but  Medea,  after  putting  her 
own  children  to  death,  transported  herself  in  a  car  drawn  by 
flying  dragons  to  Athens.  What  did  she  do  there  ?  It  is  said 
she  tried  to  poison  Theseus,  the  king  of  that  city ;  but  being 
obliged  to  fly  thence,  she  went  into  upper  Asia,  where  she  mar- 
ried a  powerful  prince,  and  had  a  son  called  Midas,  or  Medus, 
who  was  looked  upon  as  the  first  king  of  the  Medes.  How  did 
Jason  die  ?  After  the  flight  of  Medea,  he  led  a  wandering  hfe. 
She  had  predicted  he  would  perish  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  ves- 
sel of  the  Argonauts.  The  prediction  was  fulfilled ;  for  one  day 
while  walking  on  the  sea-coast,  where  the  remains  of  this  ves- 
sel had  been  drawn  up  to  dry,  a  beam  fell  from  it  and  broke 
his  head.  What  does  fable  say  of  Bellerophon  ?  He  was  the 
son  of  Glaucus,  king  of  Corinth,  and  Epimedea,  the  daughter 
of  Sisyphus.  He  was  called  Hlpponaus,  a  word  which  ^ows 
that  he  was  the  first  who  taught  the  art  of  guiding  a  horse 
without  a  bridle;  but  afterwards,  having  the  misfortune  to 
kill  liis  brother  BeLus,  he  obtained  the  name  of  Bellerophon. 
Where  did  he  take  refuge  ?  Although  the  murder  was  unin- 
tentional, he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  with  Prcetus,  king  of 

24* 


282  Ml THOLOGY. 

Argus.     Sthenobia,  the  wife  of  this  monarch,  accused  him  un- 
justly to  her  husband  ;  Proetus,  not  wishing  to  violate  the  laws 
of  hospitality  by  punishing  him  himself,  sent  him  to  Jobatus, 
the  father  of  Sthenobia,  requesting  him  to  punish  Bellerophon 
for  insulting  his  daughter,  while  Bellerophon  thought  he  was 
taking  a  letter  of  recommendation.     What  reception  did  he  re- 
ceive from  Jobatus  ?     He  received  him  very  kindly,  and  the 
first  nine  days  after  his  arrival  were  passed  in  a  succession  of 
fetes.     At  last  the  king  of  Lycia  having  broken  open  the  let- 
ters of  his  son-in-law,  did  not  like  to  commit  a  breach  of  hos- 
pitality, and  therefore  determined  to  expose  him  to  some  great 
danger.     To  what  dangers  was  he  exposed  ?     Jobatus  raised 
up  against  the  young  prince  many  enemies,  but  he  triumphed 
over  them  all ;  and  overcame,  with  a  handful  of  soldiers,  the 
Solymnians,  the  Amazons,  and  the  Lycians.     At  last  the  king 
engaged  him  to  fight  with  the  Chimera,  hoping  that  he  would  be 
conquered  in  this  enterprise.     What  was  the  Chimera?      A 
monster  born  in  Lycia,  which  had  the  head  of  a  Hon,  the  tail 
of  a  dragon,  and  the  body  of  a  goat.     Her  immense  throat 
was  constantly  vomiting  forth  flames   and  fieiy  winds.     How 
did  he  overcome  the  Chimera?      The  young  hero,  aided  by 
Minerva,  who  lent  him  Pegasus  for  the  occasion,  and,  mounted 
on  this  animal,  conquered  the  Chimera  by  shooting  her  with 
arrows.     Then  Jobatus,  discovering  the  innocence  of  Bellero- 
phon from  the  assistance  rendered  him  by  the  gods,  gave  him 
his  daughter  in  marriage,    and   declared   him   his   successor. 
Sthenobia,  torn  by  remorse,  poisoned  herself.     Bellerophon  was 
placed  with  Pegasus,  among  the  stars.    What  are  called  the  let- 
ters of  Bellerophon  ?     Ever  since  the  adventures  of  this  prince, 
letters  purporting  to  bear  a  message  contrary  to  their  true  mean- 
ing, are  called  "  the  letters  of  Bellerophon."     What  is  told  of 
Orpheus  ?     He  was  a  celebrated  poet  and  musician,  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  CHo.     The  most  savage  beasts  were  tamed  by  the 
sounds  of  his  lyre  ;  rivers  suspended  their  course,  and  even  trees 
and  stones  were  moved.     Whom  did  he  marry  ?     The  nymph 
Eurydice.     She  died  the  day  of  her  marriage,  and,  miserable 
at  her  loss,  Orpheus  descended  to  the  infernal  regions  and  de- 
manded her  from  Pluto  ;  the  god  was  touched  by  his  grief,  and 
promised  to  restore  her  to  him  on  one  condition,  which  was, 
that  he  should  walk  before  her  and  not  turn  to  look  back,  until 
they  had  passed  the  limits  of  hell.     When  they  approached 
daylight,  Orpheus  could  no  longer  refrain  from  taking  one  look 
at  his  beloved  wife ;  he  turned  his  head,  and  she  was  snatched 
away  from  him  forever.     How  did  Orpheus  die  ?     In  despair 


MYTHOLOGY.  2S3 

he  retired  to  Mount  Rhodopus ;  there  the  Bacchantes,  piqued 
at  his  indifference  to  them,  determined  to  be  revenged  on  him. 
One  day  while  they  were  celebrating  the  feasts  of  Bacchus, 
they  threw  themselves  upon  him  and  tore  him  to  pieces,  throw- 
ing his  head  into  the  Ebro,  where,  tossed  about  by  the  waves, 
it  still  gives  forth  melancholy  sounds,  which  are  reverberated 
by  the  echoes  of  the  banks.  Where  were  divine  honors  paid  to 
Orpheus  ?  A  temple  was  dedicated  to  him  where  -his  head 
was  found,  the  entrance  to  which  was  forbidden  to  women. 
His  father  changed  him  into  a  swan,  and  his  lyre  is  placed 
among  the  stars,  and  ornamented  by  nine  beautiful  stars  pre- 
sented by  the  Muses.  How  is  he  represented  ?  Crowned  with 
laurel,  holding  a  lyre  or  lute  in  his  hand,  and  around  him  various 
animals  attracted  by  his  harmonious  sounds.  Whose  son  was 
Aristeus  ?  The  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph  Gyrene.  This 
shepherd  was  in  love  with  Eurydice,  but  she  preferred  Orpheus. 
On  her  wedding-day,  while  trying  to  conceal  herself  from  Ar- 
isteus, she  was  stung  by  a  bee,  and  died  immediately.  How 
was  her  death  avenged  ?  The  nymphs,  grieved  by  her  loss, 
killed  all  the  bees  belonging  to  Aristeus.  The  young  man,  -in 
despair,  appealed  to  his  mother,  who  advised  him  to  consult 
Proteus.  How  did  he  obtain  an  answer  from  Proteus?  This 
god  changed  himself  into  a  serpent,  then  to  a  river,  and  then  to  a 
lion  ;  but  Aristeus,  having  succeeded  in  chaining  him,  forced  him 
to  resume  his  natural  form.  Proteus  then  informed  him  of  the 
cause  of  his  misfortune,  and  advised  him  to  make  expiatory  sacri- 
fices to  the  manes  of  Eurydice.  What  sacrifice  did  he  ofi'er?  He 
offered  four  bulls  and  as  many  mares.  After  which,  with  joy, 
he  beheld  immense  swarms  of  bees  coming  out  of  the  bodies  of 
the  victims,  which  far  exceeded  in  number  those  he  had  lost. 
Who  was  Arion  ?  The  rival  of  Orpheus ;  he  remained  a  long 
time  at  the  court  of  Periander,  king  of  Corinth,  where  his  talents 
were  richly  recompensed.  One  day  while  crossing  from  Taren- 
tum  to  Corinth,  the  sailors  determined  to  kill  him  for  his  wealth. 
What  steps  did  he  take  ?  He  implored  them  to  allow  him  to 
play  on  his  lyre  once  more  ;  he  filled  the  air  with  sweet  sounds, 
but  finding  that  he  could  not  soften  the  hearts  of  these  barba- 
rians, he  threw  himself  into  the  sea,  with  a  garland  on  his  head 
and  his  lyre  in  his  hand.  How  was  he  saved  ?  A  dolphin,  who 
had  been  attracted  by  the  sweetness  of  his  voice  and  followed 
the  vessel,  took  him  on  his  back  and  carried  him  as  far  as  Cape 
Tenedos,  in  Lacaonia,  whence  Arion  reached  Corinth.  The  dol' 
^hm  was  recompensed  by  being  placed  among  the  stars.  What 
may  we  learn  from  the  fable  of  Amphion  ?     Amphion  was  th» 


284  MYTHOLOGY. 

son  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope,  the  wife  of  Lyciis,  king  of  Thebes, 
He  mqirned  Niobe,  and  became  so  skilful  in  the  science  of  music 
that  he  is  said  to  have  built  the  walls  of  Thebes  by  the  power 
of  his  lyre,  at  the  sound  of  which  the  stones,  moved  by  the 
sweetness  of  the  notes,  arranged  themselves  in  order.  This  is 
an  ingenious  emblem  of  the  power  of  music  and  poetry  on  the 
earliest  race  of  men. 
^  Who  was  Cadmus?  He  was  the  son  of  Agenor,  king  of 
Phoenicia,  and  the  nymph  Melia.  He  was  the  brother  of  Eu- 
ropa,  who  was  carried  off  by  Jupiter.  What  was  done  by 
Agenor  on  this  occasion  ?  Being  in  despair  at  the  loss  of  his 
dauo-hter,  he  commanded  his  son  Cadmus  to  search  for  her  all 
over  the  world,  and  not  to  return  until  he  had  found  her. 
What  city  did  Cadmus  found  ?  Not  daring  to  return  to  his 
own  country  without  his  sister,  he  consulted  the  oracle  at 
Belphos  to  know  where  he  should  settle.  Apollo  commanded 
him  to  build  a  city  on  a  spot  to  which  he  should  be  conducted 
by  an  ox.  Cadmus  obeyed,  and  built  the  city  of  Thebes,  in 
Beotia,  on  the  model  of  the  Thebes  in  Egypt,  the  walls  of 
which  had  been  constructed  by  Amphion  with  the  sound  of  his 
lyre.  What  became  of  his  companions  ?  It  is  said  that  his 
companions,  going  to  draw  water  from  the  fountain  of  Dirise, 
were  devoured  by  a  dragon.  Cadmus  killed  the  monster,  and, 
by  the  advice  of  Minerva,  sowed  his  teeth  in  an  adjoining  field. 
What  then  occurred  ?  From  the  field  thus  sown,  armed  men 
sprung  up,  and  at  first  attacked  Cadmus,  but  soon  fell  on  each 
other,  and  they  were  all  killed  but  five,  who  assisted  him  to 
build  the  city.  For  what  were  the  Greeks  indebted  to  Cadmus  ? 
It  is  said  that  he  introduced  among  them  the  worship  of  the 
Egyptian  and  Phoenician  deities ;  but  what  is  still  better,  that 
he  introduced  the  knowledge  of  letters,  and  the  art  of  writing, 
until  then  unknown  in  Greece.  Who  was  the  wife  of  Cadmis  ? 
Harmonia,  a  daughter  of  Venus  and  Mars.  Her  name  shows 
what  art  she  taught  the  Greeks.  What  was  the  end  of  Cad- 
mua  ?  An  oracle  having  apprized  him  that  his  posterity  was 
threatened  with  great  misfortunes,  he  exiled  himself  from 
Thebes  that  he  might  not  witness  them,  and  retired  to  Illyria, 
where  he  and  his  wife  were  both  changed  into  serpents.  What 
was  the  history  of  (Edipus  ?  Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  having 
been  warned  by  an  oracle  that  he  would  perish  by  the  hand  of 
his  son,  previous  to  his  birth  desired  a  soldier  to  take  the  young 
prince  so  soon  as  he  was  born  and  put  him  to  death.  What 
became  of  CEdipus?  The  soldier,  struck  by  the  grace  and 
beauty  of  the  child,  would  not  kill  him,  but  hung  him  by  the 


MYTHOLOGY.  285 

feet  to  a  tree  on  Mount  Cytheron.  Phorbas,  tlie  shepherd  of 
the  king  of  Corinth,  attracted  by  the  cries  of  the  child,  took 
him  to  his  own  cabin.  By  whom  was  he  brought  up  ?  The 
queen  of  Corinth  having  heard  the  adventure,  wished  to  see 
him,  and  having  no  children,  adopted  and  took  charge  of  him. 
The  feet  of  the  child  having  still  the  marks  of  the  cords  by 
which  he  had  been  tied,  the  queen,  for  that  reason,  called  him 
(Edipus,  which  means,  injiamed  feet.  What  did  the  oracle 
foretell  to  him?  He  received  the  following  reply,  when  he 
became  old  enough  to  consult  the  oracle :  **  (Edipus  will  be  the 
murderer  of  his  father,  and  the  husband  of  his  mother,  and 
from  him  shall  spring  a  detestable  race."  From  the  fear  of 
accomplishing  this  horrible  prediction,  he  exiled  himself  from 
Corinth,  and  intended  going  to  Phocidia.  How  did  he  become 
a  parricide  ?  On  his  journey  he  had  to  pass  a  narrow  defile, 
where  he  met  Laius,  mounted  on  his  car,  who  ordered  him,  in 
the  most  haughty  manner,  to  let  him  pass.  (Edipus  had  only 
an  escort  of  five  persons,  but  he  attacked  the  king  of  Thebes, 
without  knowing  who  he  was,  and  in  the  conflict  Laius  was 
killed.  What  happened  at  Thebes  ?  On  arriving  there,  (Edipus 
found  the  city  destroyed  by  the  Sphinx.  The  father  of  Jocasta, 
who  had  taken  the  reins  of  government  on  the  death  of  his  son- 
in-law,  Laius,  published  throughout  Greece  that  he  Avould  give 
his  daughter,  now  a  widow,  and  his  kingdom,  to  whoever  would 
deliver  Thebes  from  this  monster.  Who  was  the  Sphinx  ?  The 
oSspring  of  Echidna  and  Typhon,  a  monster  with  the  head  of  a 
woman,  the  body  of  a  dog,  the  wings  and  tail  of  a  dragon,  the 
feet  and  nails  of  a  lion.  This  creature  resided  on  Mount  Phiceus, 
where  it  stopped  all  travellers  and  proposed  to  them  riddles, 
which  were  composed  by  the  Muses ;  all  those  who  could  not 
guess  them  she  devoured.  Juno,  at  length  being  vexed  with 
the  Thebans,  sent  her  to  devour  them.  What  was  the  riddle 
which  she  usually  ofi^ered  ?  That  which  she  proposed  to  the 
Thebans  was  this :  "  What  animal  is  that  which,  in  the  morning 
goes  on  four  legs,  on  two  at  mid-day,  and  in  the  evening  on 
three  ?"  It  was  the  fate  of  the  Sphinx  that  she  should  perish 
so  soon  as  this  riddle  was  guessed.  By  whom  was  it  guessed  ? 
(Edipus,  incited  by  the  reward,  presented  himself  to  the  Sphinx, 
and  was  clever  enough  to  guess  her  meaning.  He  replied  that 
this  animal  was  man  ;  who,  when  a  child,  walks  on  four  legs, 
by  creeping  on  hands  and  knees ;  when  grown  up,  walked  on 
two  legs ;  and  in  the  decline  of  life,  supported  himself  on  his 
stick,  which  was  to  him  a  third  leg.  The  Sphinx,  conquered 
by  this  explanation,  threw  herself  into  the  sea.     Did  (Edipus 


•286  MYTHOLOGY, 

receive  tlie  promised  recompense  ?  After  having  delivered  tk^ 
Thebans  from  this  monster,  he  was  proclaimed  king  of  Thebes, 
and  married  his  mother  Jocasta,  bv  whom  he  had  two  sons^ 
Eteocles  and  Polynices,  and  two  daughters,  Antigone  and  Is- 
mene.  What  new  misfortune  befell  Thebes  ?  Many  years 
after,  the  kingdom  was  desolated  by  a  terrible  plague.  On 
consulting  the  oracle,  the  reply  was,  that  it  would  not  end  until 
the  murderer  of  Laius  was  expelled.  How  was  he  discovered  ? 
After  much  difficulty,  (Edipus  learned  from  a  shepherd  that  he 
had  found  him  exposed  on  Mount  Cytheron,  and  from  other 
circumstances,  no  doubt  remained  that  he  was  the  unfortunate 
parricide;  and  Jocasta,  in  despair,  killed  herself,  finish  the 
story  of  (Edipus.  He  was  so  struck  with  horror  by  these  ter- 
rible revelations,  that  he  put  out  his  eyes.  Driven  from  Thebes 
by  his  sons,  he  was  followed  and  comforted  by  his  dear  Anti- 
gone, who  IS  represented  as  the  most  perfect  model  of  filial  love. 
The  unfortunate  father  remained  for  some  time  near  a  town  of 
Attica,  called  Colonna,  in  a  wood  sacred  to  the  Eumenides,  a 
name  under  which  the  Furies  were  worshipped.  What  was  his 
end  ?  Driven  out  of  this  wood,  which  was  interdicted  to  the 
profane,  he  was  conducted  to  Athens,  where  Theseus  received 
him  with  much  kindness.  A  short  time  after  a  clap  of  thunder 
warned  him  of  the  end  of  all  his  misery,  the  earth  opened,  and 
received  the  unfortunate  man,  without  further  pain  or  trouble. 
Who  was  Polynices  ?  The  eldest  son  of  CEdipus.  Eteocles 
agreed  with  his  brother  Polynices,  that  they  should  divide  the 
government  of  Thebes,  after  the  departure  of  their  father,  and 
that  they  should  reign  alternately  each  year.  Eteocles  reigned 
first,  but  when  the  year  came  round  he  refused  to  resign  the 
crown  to  his  brother.  This  was  the  cause  of  the  famous  The- 
ban  war,  so  renowned  in  song.  What  course  did  Polynices  take  ? 
To  regain  his  rights,  he  armed  all  Greece  against  his  brother. 
The  chief  warriors  among  the  Argives  took  part  in  this  expedi- 
tion. These  were  Adrastus,  Polynices,  and  Tydeus,  the  famous 
Capaneus,  Hippomedon,  the  divine  Am phiarus,  and  Partheuopea. 
They  were  called  '*  the  Seven  Argive  Chiefs."  What  events  took 
place  during  this  war  ?  When  the  Argives  presented  the  mselves 
before  the  fortifications  of  Thebes,  the  soothsayer  Teresias  prom- 
ised success  to  the  Thebans  if  Meneceaus,  the  son  of  Creon,  and 
the  last  descendant  of  Cadmus,  would  sacrifice  himself  for  the 
safety  of  Thebes.  *'  It  is  done,"  replied  this  generous  prince,  and 
threw  himself  from  the  walls  in  presence  of  the  enemy.  Victory 
was  the  reward  cf  this  glorious  action,  as  it  was  considered  by 
the  ancients ;  the  Argives  Avere  repulsed  and  their  seven  chiet- 


MYTHOLOGY.  267 

tains  perished,  with  the  exception  of  Adrastus.  What  v  ;is  the 
fate  of  Eteocles  and  Polynices  ?  The  two  brothers  having  de- 
termined to  end  this  cruel  war  by  single  combat,  fell  each  by 
the  sword  of  his  brother.  But  death  did  not  end  their  hatred ; 
for  the  bodies  being  both  placed  on  the  same  funeral  pile,  the 
flames  divided  them  and  consumed  each  separately,  proving 
that  their  mutual  aversion  did  not  end  with  life.  Who  then  as- 
cended the  throne?  Creon,  after  the  death  of  the  sons  of  (Edi- 
pus,  remounted  the  throne  which  he  had  abdicated  in  favor  of 
that  unfortunate  prince.  By  his  command  the  body  of  Poly- 
nices was  refused  the  rites  of  sepulture,  because  he  had  armed 
strangers  against  his  own  countrymen.  Who  undertook  to  bury 
it  ?  Antigone,  his  sister,  returned  to  Thebes  to  pay  the  last 
honors  to  his  memory,  and  having  been  surprised  in  the  act  of 
collecting  his  bones  for  that  purpose,  was  condemned  to  be 
buried  alive ;  to  avoid  which  horrible  fate,  she  strangled  her- 
self. Israena,  her  sister,  declared  herself  the  accomplice  of  An- 
tigone, and  perished  in  the  same  way.  Give  some  account  of 
Pelops.  He  was  the  son  of  Tantalus,  king  of  Lydia,  and  being 
obliged  to  forsake  his  own  country  on  account  of  an  earthquake, 
took  refuge  in  Greece  with  QEnomaus,  king  of  Elidus,  where  he 
fell  in  love  with  Hippodamia,  the  daughter  of  the  king.  Wliat 
obstacles  presented  themselves  to  this  marriage  ?  An  oracle 
having  predicted  that  (Enomaus  should  perish  by  the  hand  of 
his  son-in-law,  he  determined  to  condemn  his  daughter  to  per- 
petual celibacy.  To  frighten  the  suitors,  he  announced  that 
he  would  only  give  the  hand  of  his  daughter  to  the  one  who 
should  overcome  him  in  a  chariot  race,  and  that  he  would  kill 
all  those  whom  he  conquered.  The  lovers  were  obliged  to  pre- 
cede him,  and  he  followed,  sword  in  hand,  drawn  by  two  horses 
who  were  fleet  as  the  wind.  How  did  Pelops  become  the  con- 
queror ?  Thirteen  suitors  had  already  perished,  when  the  gods 
becoming  incensed,  made  Pelops  a  present  of  two  winged  horses. 
Although  he  might  have  been  certain  of  victory,  the  son  of 
Tantalus  determined  to  employ  a  stratagem,  and  to  this  end 
bribed  Myrtillus,  the  son  of  Mercury,  who  was  the  charioteer  of 
Q^lnomaus,  to  upset  the  car.  The  king  perished  in  the  fall,  and 
Pelops  married  Hippodamia,  and  took  possession  of  the  estates 
of  his  wife,  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name,  and  they  became 
the  Peloponnesus,  now  known  as  the  Morea.  Had  Pelops  any 
children  ?  He  had  a  great  number ;  among  whom  Atreus  and 
Thyesteus  are  celebrated  in  fable  for  the  horrible  outrages  they 
committed.  What  were  these?  Thyesteus,  having  seduced 
Erope,  his  brother's  wife,  by  whom  he  had  two  children,  after 


288  MYTHOLOGY. 

wards  fled,  and  left  her  to  bear  her  husband's  anger.  Atreus 
disguised  his  anger,-  and  some  time  after,  at  a  feast  which  was 
given  on  the  return  of  Thyesteus,  and  where  the  two  brothers 
swore  eternal  friendship  to  each  other,  he  had  the  limbs  of  his 
own  children  served  up  to  Thyesteus.  To  show  the  horror  en- 
tertained of  this  crime,  it  is  said  that  the  sun  would  not  rise  to 
give  light  to  that  day.  Hoav  did  Thyesteus  revenge  himself  ? 
He  had  another  son,  by  a  different  person,  named  Egistheus, 
who,  to  revenge  his  father's  death,  murdered  Atreus  at  a  sacri- 
fice which  was  held  at  the  sea-side;  and  afterwards  killed  Aga- 
memnon, the  son  of  Atreus,  when  he  returned  from  the  Trojan 
war.  What  is  said  of  Troy  ?  It  was  a  city,  situated  in  Asia 
Minor,  founded  nine  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Under  its  kings,  who  were  Dardanus,  its  founder,  Ericthoneus, 
Troas,  Illus,  Laomedon,  and  Priam,  it  acquired  the  highest  de- 
gree of  power  and  splendor ;  three  centuries  after  its  founda- 
tion, it  was  the  most  celebrated  city  in  the  universe,  when  it 
was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Greeks,  who  united  themselves  to 
avenge  the  injury  done  to  the  Grecian  piinces  in  the  person  of 
Menelaus,  king  of  Lacedemon.  What  was  the  injury  ?  Her- 
cules having  sacked  the  city  of  Troy,  to  punish  Laomedon  for 
his  want  of  faith,  had  given  to  Telamon,  king  of  Salamis,  the 
hand  of  Hesione,  the  daughter  of  Laomedon.  Priam,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Laomedon,  desired  his  son  Paris  to  go  and  reclaim 
this  princess.  Paris,  on  his  way  to  Salamis,  stopped  at  the 
court  of  Menelaus,  carried  off  the  wife  of  this  prince,  and  swore 
not  to  restore  her  until  Hesione,  his  aunt,  should  be  returned. 
The  Grecian  princes,  who  did  not  wish  to  restore  Hesione,  took 
up  arms  and  came  before  the  walls  of  Troy  to  demand  Helen, 
with  a  formidable  army.  Did  the  gods  take  part  in  the  Trojan 
war  ?  Yes,  they  were  equally  divided  ;  and  it  Avas  in  vain  that 
Jupiter  tried  to  reconcile  them.  Neptune,  Apollo,  and  Her- 
cules, who  had  old  injuries  to  avenge,  declared  violently  against 
the  Trojans,  and  were  seconded  by  Juno  and  Minerva,  who 
swore  to  take  revenge  of  the  Trojans  for  the  insult  which  they 
pretended  to  have  received  from  Paris.  Which  of  the  gods 
took  part  with  the  Trojans  ?  Venus  always  protected  her  dear 
Trojans,  and  often  engaged  Jupiter  on  her  side.  One  of  her 
efforts  was  to  unite  the  Xanthus  and  Simois,  two  rivers  of  the 
Trojan  plain,  to  dro^vn  Achilles,  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of 
the  Trojans.  He  would  have  perished  had  not  Juno  sent  Vul- 
can to  his  aid,  who  dried  up  the  two  rivers  with  his  torch.  On 
what  fataUties  did  the  taking  of  Troy  depend  ?  The  poets  say 
that  the  capture  of  the  city  depended  on  certain  events  which 


MYTHOLOGY.  289 

were  to  take  place  during  tlie  siege ;  these  were  called  fatali- 
ties, and  were  six  in  number.  1st.  It  was  necessary  that  there 
should  be  a  descendant  of  ^acus  at  the  siege.  This  was 
Achilles.  2d.  That  the  Greeks  should  have  possession  of  the 
arrows  of  Hercules.  3d.  That  they  should  carry  off  from  Troy 
the  Palladium,  a  statue  of  Minerva,  which  was  placed  in  the 
temple  of  that  goddess  at  Troy.  4th.  That  they  should  pre- 
vent the  horses  of  Rhesus  from  drinking  the  waters  of  the 
Xanthus.  5th.  That  Troilus,  the  son  of  Priam,  should  die, 
and  that  the  tomb  of  Laomedon  should  be  destroyed.  6th.  That 
the  Greeks  should  have  in  their  army  Telepheus,  the  son  of  Her- 
cules, and  king  of  Mysia.  What  efforts  did  the  Greeks  make 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  city  ?  They  had  besieged  the  city 
ten  years,  and  having  been  overcome  in  their  repeated  attacks, 
they  determined  to  have  recourse  to  stratagem.  By  the  ad- 
vice (J.  Pallas,  they  constructed  a  wooden  horse  as  high  as  a 
mountain,  and  filled  it  with  soldiers ;  they  then  pretended  to 
have  taken  their  departure,  having  first  proclaimed  this  a  peace- 
offering  to  Minerva.  After  this  they  retired  to  the  island  of 
Tenedos,  opposite  to  Troy,  and  from  thence  watched  the  effects 
of  their  stratagem.  What  did  the  Trojans  do?  Thinking 
themselves  delivered  from  their  enemies,  they  had  this  immense 
horse  brought  into  their  city,  and  placed  at  the  porch  of  the 
temple  of  Minerva.  The  following  night,  while  the  Trojans 
were  sunk  in  drunkenness  and  sleep,  the  soldiers  came  out  of  the 
horse  and  opened  the  gates  to  the  Grecian  army,  who  soon  re- 
duced the  city  to  ashes,  after  a  ten  years'  siege,  in  which  had 
perished  a  hundred  thousand  Greeks,  and  almost  as  many  Tro- 
jans. Who  were  the  principal  among  the  Greeks  ?  Agamem- 
non, king  of  Argos,  who  had  the  command  of  the  Grecian 
forces ;  Menelaus,  his  brother ;  Achilles  and  his  friend  Patro- 
cles ;  Pyrrhus,  his  son ;  the  two  Ajax ;  Diomede,  Philocteus, 
Nestor,  Protesilaus,  Idomeneus,  Palamedes,  Ulysses,  etc.  Who 
were  the  principal  on  the  Trojan  side  ?  Priam,  king  of  Troy  ; 
Hector  and  Paris,  his  two  sons ;  Laocoon ;  Rhesus,  king  of 
Thrace  ;  Memnon  ;  Eneas.  Who  were  Agamemnon  and  Mene- 
laus ?  They  were  the  sons  of  Plesthenus,  king  of  Argos,  and 
brother  of  Atreus,  from  whom  they  were  named  the  Atrides, 
How  did  Agamemnon  recover  his  throne  ?  Having  been  de- 
throned by  Thyesteus,  his  uncle,  he  took  refuge  at  the  court  of 
Tyndarus,  king  of  Sparta.  Aided  by  this  prince,  he  drove  Thy- 
esteus from  Argos,  killed  Tantalus,  the  son  of  the  usurper,  and 
married  Clytemnestra,  the  wife  of  Tantalus  and  daughter  of  Tyii- 
darus,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters,  Iphigenia  and  Electro 

25 


290  MYTHOLOGY. 

and  a  son,  Orestes.  What  event  caused  the  Trojan  war  ?  Mene-« 
laus  married  Helen,  the  sister  of  Clytemnestra,  and  succeeded 
his  father-in-law  Tyndarus  on  the  throne  of  Sparta.  Helen 
having  been  carried  off  by  Paris,  all  the  Grecian  princes  took 
up  arms  to  revenge  the  affront,  and  the  command  of  the  army 
was  given  to  Agamemnon.  What  sacrifice  was  imposed  on 
Agamemnon  ?  The  fleet  in  which  the  expedition  against  Troy 
set  sail,  assembled  at  Aulis,  a  maritime  city  of  Beotia,  where  it 
was  detained  by  contrary  winds.  The  soothsayer,  Calchas,  de- 
clared that  Diana,  being  angry  with  Agamemnon  for  having 
killed  a  doe  which  was  sacred  to  her,  refused  the  Greeks  a  fair 
wind,  and  that  nothing  would  appease  the  goddess  but  the 
blood  of  Iphigenia,  the  daughter  of  the  king.  Iphigenia  was 
bound  for  the  sacrifice,  when  Diana,  appeased  by  this  submis- 
sion, put  a  doe  in  her  stead,  and  carried  off  the  young  princess 
to  Tauridus,  to  be  her  priestess.  Did  the  Atrides  distinguish 
themselves  at  the  siege  of  Troy  ?  Agamemnon  showed  only 
pride  and  folly ;  but  Menelaus,  on  the  contrary,  displayed  much 
valor,  and  proposed  to  Paris  to  end  the  quarrel  by  a  duel  be- 
tween them,  agreeing  that  Helen  should  be  the  prize  of  the 
conqueror.  This  combat  took  place  under  the  walls  of  Troy,  in 
presence  of  both  Grecians  and  Trojans.  Menelaus  had  the  ad- 
vantage, and  Paris  owed  his  life  to  Venus,  who  carried  him  off 
in  a  cloud  to  save  him.  Menelaus  then  demanded  the  prize, 
which  the  Trojans  refused.  This  perfidy  reanimated  the  ardor 
of  the  Greeks. 

What  became  of  Helen?  After  the  capture  of  Troy,  the 
Greeks  restored  her  to  her  husband ;  he  at  first  determined  to 
sacrifice  her  to  the  manes  of  those  who  had  perished  in  the  war, 
but  finally  allowed  himself  to  be  overcome  by  her  tears  and 
penitence,  and  became  reconciled  to  her.  What  became  of 
Agamemnon?  On  his  return  he  was  put  to  death  by  Egis- 
theus,  who  married  his  widow,  Clytemnestra,  immediately  after. 
Relate  the  misfortunes  and  crimes  of  Orestes.  Egistheus  would 
have  put  him  to  death,  to  secure  the  crown  to  himself ;  but  his 
sister,  Electra,  saved  his  life  by  sending  him  to  Strophius,  king 
of  Phocidia,  ths  brother-in-law  of  Agamemnon.  After  twelve 
years  of  exile,  Orestes  returned  to  his  native  country,  and  killed, 
with  his  own  hand,  his  mother,  Clytemnestra,  and  Egistheus. 
Scon  after  he  had  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  put  to  death, 
to  punish  him  for  having  carried  oflf  Hermione,  the  daughter  of 
Menelaus,  whom  he  intended  to  marry.  How  does  the  history 
of  Orestes  end  ?  From  this  moment  Orestes  was  given  over  to 
ihe  power  of  the  Furies,  who  unceasingly  tormented  him  for 


MYTHOLOGY.  29 / 

his  crimes.  The  oracle  having  declared  that  he  would  hew^ 
know  peace  until  he  went  to  Taurica  to  bring  away  the  statua 
of  Diana,  he  went  there,  accompanied  by  Pylades,  his  cousin, 
and  the  faithful  companion  of  all  his  dangers.  They  were 
seized,  and  the  custom  of  the  country  commanded  that  they 
should  be  sacrificed  to  the  goddess.  From  this  arose  the  gen- 
erous contention  which  of  the  two  should  sacrifice  his  life  for 
the  other.  On  whom  did  the  lot  fall  ?  On  Orestes.  Fortu- 
nately, at  the  moment  he  was  about  to  be  sacrificed,  he  was 
recognised  by  Iphigenia,  his  sister,  now  the  priestess  of  Diana, 
who  saved  his  life.  From  this  time  the  Furies  ceased  to  tor- 
ment him.  He  married  Hermione,  and  gave  his  sister  Electra 
to  Pylades.  After  a  long  and  peaceful  reign,  he  died  from  the 
bite  of  a  serpent. 

Give  an  account  of  the  birth  and  education  of  Achilles. 
Achilles  was  the  son  of  Thetis  and  Peleus,  and  one  of  the 
descendants  of  ^acus,  the  king  of  the  island  of  Egina,  and 
judge  of  the  infernal  regions.  His  mother,  who  tenderly  loved 
him,  plunged  him  into  the  Styx,  the  waters  of  which  rendered 
him  invulnerable  in  all  parts  of  his  body,  except  the  heel,  by 
which  she  held  him.  He  was  brought  up  by  the  Centaur 
Chiron,  who,  it  is  said,  employed  a  lioness  and  tigress  to  nurse 
him,  which  created  in  him  that  extraordinary  courage  and 
strength  which  he  displayed  in  all  his  combats.  Why  was 
Achilles  sent  to  the  court  of  Lycomedes  ?  The  oracle  having 
predicted  that  Troy  would  not  be  taken  without  Achilles,  but 
that  he  would  perish  beneath  its  walls,  Thetis,  to  prevent  the 
accomplishment  of  this  mournful  prediction,  sent  her  son, 
dressed  as  a  woman,  to  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros. 
Achilles  was  beloved  by  Deidamia,  the  daughter  of  the  king ; 
he  married  her  secretly,  and  had  a  son  by  her,  named  Pyrrhus. 
How  did  Ulysses  discover  Achilles  ?  Having  found  out  his 
retreat,  he  went  there  disguised  as  a  merchant,  and  offered  the 
ladies  of  the  court,  jewels,  &c. ;  among  these  things  he  mixed 
swords,  a  casque,  and  other  arms,  on  which  Achilles,  as  Ulysses 
had  foreseen,  immediately  made  choice  of  the  arms,  and  by  this 
means  discovered  himself.  He  then  eagerly  followed  Ulysses 
to  the  siege  of  Troy,  clothed  with  invulnerable  armor,  which 
Thetis  had  induced  Vulcan  to  forge.  He  soon  became  the  first 
among  the  Grecian  heroes  ;  but  unhappily  a  quarrel  which 
occurred  between  himself  and  Thetis,  deprived  the  Greeks  for 
a  long  time  of  his  aid.  What  was  the  cause  of  this  quarrel  ? 
Agamemnon  having  carried  off  Chryseis,  the  daughter  of 
Chryses,  a  priest  of  Apollo,  this  god  devastated  the  camp  cf 


292  MYTHOLOGY. 

the  Grecians  by  a  pestilence.  Achilles  undertook  to  appease 
the  wrath  of  the  god  by  returning  Chryseis  to  her  father. 
Agamemnon  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  sacrifice ;  but  to 
avenge  himself  on  Achilles,  he  obliged  him  to  give  up  the 
young  Briseis,  whom  this  hero  passionately  loved.  Much  dis- 
tressed and  angered,  Achilles  retired  to  his  tent,  and  would  not 
fight.  This  was  favorable  to  the  Trojans,  who  derived  many 
advantages  from  it ;  and  Hector,  the  son  of  Priam,  killed  Patro- 
cles,  the  friend  of  Achilles.  Why  did  Achilles  again  take  up 
arms  ?  To  revenge  the  death  of  Patrocles.  After  having  been 
inactive  for  a  year,  he  again  took  up  arms,  and  in  single  combat 
killed  Hector,  and  afterwards  fastened  the  body  to  his  chariot 
and  drew  him  three  times  round  the  walls  of  Troy.  He  at 
length  gave  it  up,  softened  by  the  tears  of  Priam.  How  did 
Achilles  die  ?  Love  occasioned  his  death.  He  had,  during  a 
truce,  seen  Polyxena,  the  daughter  of  Priam,  and  the  beauty  of 
this  princess  inspired  him  with  the  most  ardent  love.  He  asked 
her  in  marriage,  when,  at  the  time  of  the  nuptials,  the  perfid- 
ious Paris  threw  a  poisoned  arrow  at  the  heel  of  Achilles :  this 
was  thought  to  have  been  guided  by  Apollo.  After  the  sacking 
of  Troy,  the  Greeks  immolated  Polyxena  on  the  tomb  of  her 
lover.  What  honors  were  paid  him  after  death  ?  Thetis, 
having  learned  the  death  of  her  son,  came  from  the  watery  caves, 
accompanied  by  a  train  of  nymphs,  to  weep  over  his  body.  The 
nine  Muses  also  wept  for  him,  and  the  oracle  of  Dodona  decreed 
divine  honors  to  him.  Alexander  the  Great,  on  seeing  his  tomb, 
offered  a  crown  to  it ;  and  said  that  he  envied  Achilles  for  hav- 
ing, while  he  lived,  a  friend  like  Patrocles,  and,  after  death,  a 
poet  like  Homer.  What  is  said  respecting  the  youth  of  Pyr- 
rhus  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Achilles  and  Deidamia,  and  was 
brought  up  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  his  grandfather.  After 
the  death  of  Achilles,  the  Greeks,  in  accordance  with  the  decla- 
ration of  the  oracle,  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  unless  among 
the  assailants  there  should  be  a  descendant  of  ^acus,  sent  to 
Scyros  in  search  of  Pyrrhus,  who  was  then  only  eighteen  years 
old.  Did  he  avenge  himself  of  the  death  of  his  father  ?  He 
was  one  of  the  most  terrible  enemies  of  the  Trojans,  by  the 
efforts  he  made  to  avenge  the  death  of  Achilles.  It  was  he 
who  killed  the  unfortunate  Priam,  and  threw  the  young  Asty- 
anax,  the  son  of  Hector,  from  a  high  tower ;  he  also  demanded 
the  sacrifice  of  Polyxena  to  the  manes  of  Achilles.  What  was 
the  cause  of  his  death  ?  In  the  partition  of  slaves,  after  Troy 
was  taken,  he  had  for  his  share  Andromache,  the  widow  of 
Hector,  whom  he  loved  better  than  his  own  wife,  Heraiion& 


MYTHOLOGY.  293 

Having  gone  one  day  to  oflFer  sacrifice  to  Apollo,  Orestes  killed 
him  in  the  temple,  as  much  to  gratify  the  jealousy  of  Hermione, 
as  to  revenge  himself  on  Pyrrhus  for  having  carried  her  off, 
whom  he,  Orestes,  intended  For  his  own  wife.  Who  was  Phi- 
loctetes  ?  He  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Grecian  heroes. 
As  the  friend  of  Hercules,  he  inherited  his  arrows,  but  he  swore 
never  to  reveal  where  they  were  hidden,  with  the  ashes  of  the 
son  of  Alcmena.  But  as  it  was  one  of  the  "  fatalities"  attending 
the  taking  of  Troy,  that  this  could  not  be  effected  without  these 
arrows,  the  Greeks  sent  deputies  to  Philoctetes  to  ascertain 
from  him  where  they  were  hidden.  He,  not  wishing  to  break 
his  vow,  and  still  less  to  deprive  the  Greeks  of  the  advantages 
which  these  would  ensure  to  them,  pointed  with  his  foot  to  the 
place.  Was  this  punished  ?  This  falsehood  cost  him  dear ; 
for  as  he  was  on  the  way  to  Troy,  one  of  the  arrows  fell  on  the 
foot  with  which  he  had  pointed  to  the  place,  and  produced  an 
ulcer,  from  which  such  an  unpleasant  odor  was  exhaled  that  the 
deputies  were  obliged  to  leave  him  in  the  isle  of  Lemnos,  where 
he  suffered,  for  ten  years,  the  most  horrible  pain.  The  necessity 
which  the  Greeks  had  for  those  arrows  obliged  them  to  send 
again  for  him,  and  he  took  them  to  Troy.  What  use  did  he 
make  of  them  ?  No  sooner  had  he  arrived,  than  Paris  sent  to 
challenge  him  to  single  combat,  and  received  his  death  from 
one  of  the  arrows  thrown  at  him  by  Philoctetes.  The  wound 
was  mortal,  as  the  arrows  had  been  dipped  in  the  blood  of  the 
hydra.  By  whom  was  Philoctetes  cured  ?  After  the  taking  of 
Troy,  he  was  cured  of  his  ulcer  by  Machaon,  the  son  of  Escu- 
lapius. 

Who  was  Diomede  ?  The  son  of  Tyndarus,  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  expedition  against  Thebes.  He  was  brought  up  at 
the  school  of  the  celebrated  Chiron,  with  all  the  other  Gre- 
cian heroes.  At  the  siege  of  Troy  he  distinguished  himself  so 
highly,  that  he  was  considered  the  bravest  in  the  army,  after 
Achilles,  and  Ajax,  the  son  of  Telamon.  How  does  Homer 
represent  him  ?  As  the  favorite  of  Pallas.  It  was  by  her 
assistance  that  he  seized  the  horses  of  Rhesus,  carried  off  the 
Palladium,  killed  several  kings  with  his  own  hand,  and  escaped 
with  honor  from  all  the  single  combats  with  Hector,  Eneas,  and 
other  Trojan  princes ;  and  that,  at  last,  he  wounded  Mars  and 
Venus,  who  came  to  aid  her  son  Eneas,  and  who  could  only 
save  him  by  covering  him  with  a  cloud.  What  vengeance  did 
Venus  take  on  him  ?  She  brought  disorder  on  his  household. 
On  his  return  from  Troy,  not  being  able  to  live  with  Egialia,  his 
wife,  he  was  obliged  tp  fly  to  Daunus,  kmg  of  lUyria,  where  he 
25* 


*294  MYTHOLOGY. 

and  his  compaiiions  were  changed  into  herons.      This  fiction 
applies  to  the  audacious  valor  of  Diomede. 

Who  was  Nestor  ?  The  king  of  Pylos ;  one  of  the  twelve  song 
of  Neleus  and  Cholsis.  He  alone  escaped  from  Hercules,  who 
killed  his  father  and  brothers  for  having  assisted  the  Argives. 
Relate  the  exploits  of  Nestor.  He  made  the  voyage  to  Colchis 
with  the  Argonauts.  He  was  at  the  nuptials  of  Pirithous  ;  and 
fought  against  the  Centaurs.  He  was  very  old  when  he  went 
to  the  siege  of  Troy,  but  by  his  wisdom  and  counsels  ht  ren- 
dered  great  service  to  the  Greeks.  Agamemnon  said  that  if  he 
had  ten  Nestors  in  the  army  he  could  easily  take  the  city. 
How  long  did  he  live  ?  Apollo  decreed  that  he  should  live 
three  hundred  years,  or  what  the  poeis  call  the  three  ages  of 
man.  Who  was  Protesilaus  ?  He  was  the  first  to  land  on  the 
Trojan  shores.  This  generous  Greek,  seeing  that  none  of  his 
companions,  not  even  Achilles,  would  quit  their  vessels,  because 
the  oracle  predicted  that  the  first  who  landed  should  lose  his 
fife,  sacrificed  himself  for  his  countrymen ;  and  no  sooner  had 
he  landed  than  he  was  killed  by  Hector.  Who  was  Laodamia, 
and  what  was  her  fate  ?  The  wife  of  Protesilaus,  who  was 
separated  from  him  the  day  of  her  man-iage ;  she  heard  of  his 
death,  and  asked  to  see  his  shade,  and  then  died  embracing  it. 
Who  was  Idomeneus  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Deucahon,  and 
grandson  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete ;  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Why  did  he  sacrifice  his  son? 
After  the  city  was  taken,  he  was  returning  to  Crete,  when  he 
was  overtaken  by  a  storm.  To  escape  the  danger,  he  vowed 
that  should  he  return  to  his  kingdom,  he  would  sacrifice  to 
Neptune  the  first  object  whici  presented  itself  to  him  on  the 
shores  of  Crete.  The  tempest  ceased  and  he  arrived  safely, 
when  his  son,  who  had  heard  of  his  arrival,  came  to  the  port 
to  meet  him ;  and  being  the  first  object  that  presented  itself, 
the  unfortunate  father,  to  keep  his  vow,  sacrificed  his  son  to  the 
sea-god.  What  was  the  fate  of  Idomeneus  ?  The  Cretans, 
filled  with  horror  at  this  act,  rose  against  him  and  obliged  him 
to  quit  his  kingdom.  He  then  retired  to  Hesperia,  where  he 
founded  Salentum.  He  caused  the  wise  laws  of  Minos  to  be 
observed  in  his  new  city,  and  obtained  from  his  subjects  divine 
honors  after  his  death.  .Who  was  Ajax  ?  He  was  the  son  of 
Telamon  and  Hesione,  and  was,  next  to  Achilles,  the  most  valiant 
of  the  Greeks ;  and  like  him  was  proud,  and  invulnerable  excepi 
in  one  small  spot  on  the  breast,  Irnown  to  himself  alone.  Why 
had  he  been  rendered  invulnerable  ?  Hercules  (who  visited 
Telamon,  and  to  whom  he  complained  that  he  had  no  children) 


MYTHOLOGT.  295 

prayed  Jupiter  to  give  his  friend  a  son,  with  a  skin  as  impenc" 
trable  as  that  of  the  Neraean  Hon,  which  he  wore.  As  soon 
as  he  was  born  Hercules  covered  him  with  the  Hon's  skin,  which 
rendered  him  invulnerable,  except  in  that  spot  where  the  lion 
had  been  wounded  by  Hercules.  Relate  his  exploits.  Ajax 
distinguished  himself  during  an  entire  day  against  Hector ;  at 
length,  charmed  with  each  other,  they  ceased  fighting,  and  ex- 
changed presents,  among  which  was  the  baldric,  which  in  the 
end  served  to  fasten  Hector  to  the  car  of  Achilles.  What 
dispute  arose  between  Ajax  and  Ulysses  ?  After  the  death  of 
Achilles,  Ajax  and  Ulysses  both  laid  claim  to  the  arms  of  that 
hero.  It  was  settled  that  the  arms  should  be  thrown  among 
the  entmy,  and  be  given  to  him  who  went  in  search  of  them. 
Ulysses,  who  was  much  less  brave  than  Ajax,  disliked  this  pro- 
posal ;  and,  by  his  eloquence,  so  charmed  the  chiefs  that  they 
at  length  decided  in  his  favor.  What  effect  did  this  injustice 
produce  on  Ajax  ?  His  rage  threw  him  into  such  a  state  that 
he  was  deprived  of  reason ;  in  his  fury  he  threw  himself  on  a 
herd  of  swine,  whom  he  put  to  death,  thinking  he  was  revenging 
himself  on  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  who  had  decided  against 
him.  When  he  recovered,  he  was  so  much  ashamed  of  himself, 
that  he  pierced  his  own  breast  with  his  sword.  What  flower 
was  produced  by  his  blood  ?  The  flower  called  the  Hyacinth  ; 
on  which  it  is  supposed  that  the  first  two  letters  of  his  name, 
AJ,  are  to  be  seen.  W^as  there  not  another  Ajax  ?  Yes,  the 
son  of  Oileiis,  king  of  Locris.  He  was  also  a  Grecian  hero,  and 
fought  against  Troy;  he  distinguished  himself  in  all  athletic 
exercises,  and  also  by  his  impiety.  It  is  said  that  Minerva,  to 
punish  him  for  his  sacrilege,  raised  against  him  a  violent  tempest 
as  he  returned  from  Troy ;  having  saved  himself  by  reaching 
a  rock,  he  exclaimed,  "I  am  saved  in  spite  of  the  gods." 
Neptune,  enraged  at  this,  struck  the  rock  with  his  trident, 
which  it  split,  and  he  was  swallowed  up  in  the  waves.  Who 
was  Ulysses  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Laertes  and  Anticlea,  king 
of  the  small  island  of  Ithaca,  in  the  Ionian  sea.  Why  did 
he  pretend  to  be  deranged  ?  His  wife,  Penelope,  was  as  much 
renowned  for  her  beauty,  as  for  her  prudence  and  virtue ; 
and  the  love  he  bore  her,  tempted  him  to  affect  derangement, 
to  avoid  going  to  the  siege  of  Troy.  To  carry  this  out  he  pre- 
tended •  to  plough  the  sand  on  the  shore  and  sow  it  with  salt 
instead  of  corn ;  but  Palamedes,  suspecting  him,  placed  his  son 
Telemachus,  then  a  child,  on  the  line  of  the  furrow.  Ulysses, 
that  he  might  not  hurt  his  son,  raised  the  share  of  the  plough, 
and  thus  prove!  that  his  folly  was  only  a  pretence,  and  he  was 


296  MYTHOLOGY. 

obliged  to  go  to  the  siege  of  Troy ;  but  he  at  last  revenged 
himself  cruelly  on  Palamedes.  What  services  did  he  render 
the  Greeks  ?  He  was  an  eloquent  man,  cunning,  and  full  of  ar- 
tifice, and  contributed  by  the  powers  of  his  mind  as  much  to 
the  taking  of  Troy,  as  the  other  Greeks  by  their  valor.  Homer 
has  compared  him  to  Jupiter  for  prudence.  Here  follow  the 
services  which  he  rendered  to  the  Greeks.  Wliat  was  the  first 
mentioned  ?  The  discovery  of  Achilles,  without  whom,  as  one 
of  the  descendants  of  ^acus,  Troy  could  not  have  been 
taken.  The  second  ?  Aided  by  Diomede,  he  carried  off  the 
Palladium ;  this  was  a  statue  of  Minerva,  guarded  most  re- 
ligiously by  the  Trojans,  who  believed  it  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven.  What  was  the  third  ?  Rhesus,  king  of  Thrace,  hav- 
ing come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Trojans,  arrived  in  the  night, 
and  only  awaited  the  morning  to  enter  the  city.  Ulysses  and 
Diomede  surprised  his  camp,  killed  Rhesus,  and  carried  off  the 
horses  before  they  drank  the  waters  of  the  Xanthus.  What 
was  the  fourth  ?  He  prevailed  on  Telephus,  the  son  of  Her- 
cules, to  take  part  with  the  Grecians.  This  was  an  underta- 
king of  much  difficulty,  for  this  prince,  who  was  king  of  Mysia, 
had  his  kingdom  ravaged  by  the  Greeks,  and  had  been  himself 
severely  wounded  by  Achilles.  Ulysses,  having  learned  from 
an  oracle  that  the  wound  could  only  be  cured  by  the  iron 
which  caused  it,  made  an  ointment  with  the  rust  which  he 
found  on  the  lance  of  Achilles,  and  with  this  cured  the  wound, 
when,  in  gratitude,  Telephus  joined  the  Greeks.  What  was  the 
fifth  ?  He  persuaded  Philoctetes,  though  he  was  his  enemy,  to 
carry  with  him,  to  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  arrows  of  Hercules. 
Did  the  adventures  of  Ulysses  end  with  the  Trojan  war  ?  No ; 
after  the  ten  years'  siege,  he  had  to  encounter,  for  as  many 
more  years,  difficulties  and  dangers  before  his  return  home, 
which  form  the  subject  of  the  Odyssey  of  Homer,  as  the  siege 
of  Troy  forms  that  of  the  Iliad.*  What  misfortunes  did  he  en- 
counter ?  Having  been  for  a  long  time  driven  about  by  tem- 
pests, he  was  at  length  cast  upon  the  possessions  of  the  Cy- 
clops, on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  when  Polyphemus,  the  son  of 
Neptune,  the  most  terrible  of  the  Cyclops,  shut  him  up  in  his 
cave  with  his  companions,  to  devour  him.  How  did  he  escape 
from  this  danger  ?  To  effect  his  escape,  he  made  Polyphemus 
drunk,  and  then  with  a  stake  which  he  heated,  put  out  the  eye 
he  had  in  the  middle  of  his  forehead.     He  then  desired  his 


♦  The  translation  of  these  works  by  Mr.  Pope,  should  be  read  by  aL 
young  persons  immediately  after  the  study  of  Mythology. 


MYTHOLOGY.  297 

companions  to  fasten  themselves  under  the  large  sheep  belong- 
ing to  the  flock  of  Polyphemus,  and  thus  saved  them  all  as 
well  as  himself,  passing  the  giant  who  felt  the  backs  of  each  as 
they  went  out  to  pasture.  What  present  was  made  to  him  by 
Eolus  ?  From  Sicily  Ulysses  betook  himself  to  Eolus,  the  god 
of  winds,  who  received  him  kindly  and  presented  him  with  all 
the  adverse  winds  shut  up  in  a  bag.  His  companions  yielding 
to  curiosity,  opened  the  bag  and  the  winds  escaped,  causing  a 
furious  tempest,  and  they  were  again  thrown  on  the  coast  of 
Sicily  among  the  Zestrigons,  a  barbarous  people,  by  whom  they 
were  almost  all  devoured.  What  adventures  befell  him  in  the 
island  of  CEa  ?  After  having  lost  eleven  of  his  vessels  in  the 
tempest,  the  one  in  which  he  was,  was  driven  on  the  island  of 
QEa,  where  Circe,  the  daughter  of  the  Sun  and  Persia,  dwelt. 
This  goddess,  who  was  a  sorceress  as  w^ll,  employed  all  her 
arts  to  detain  Ulysses  and  his  companions;  these  last  she 
changed  into  swine,  and  he  was  only  preserved  from  a  similar 
fate  by  means  of  an  herb  which  had  been  given  to  him  by  Ju- 
piter. By  the  advice  of  this  god  also,  he  constrained  her, 
sword  in  hand,  to  restore  his  companions  to  their  original  forms. 
He  became  reconciled  to  her  after  this,  and  she  had  a  son  by 
him,  Telegone.  Where  did  he  go  after  this  ?  He  descended 
to  the  infernal  regions  to  consult  the  famous  soothsayer  Tire- 
sias,  who  hearing  the  dangers  which  menaced  him,  predicted 
that  he  would  perish  by  the  hand  of  one  of  his  sons.  From 
thence  he  directed  his  course  again  to  Ithaca,  and  was  so  for- 
tunate as  to  escape  with  his  companions  the  seductions  of  the 
Sirens.  Did  he  not  encounter  another  tempest?  Yes,  after 
being  so  fortunate  as  to  escape  the  gulfs  of  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
dis,  he  was  again  overtaken  by  a  tempest  which  Neptune 
raised  against  him,  for  having  deprived  his  son  Polyphemus 
of  sight.  Ulysses  then  witnessed  the  destruction  of  his  last 
vessel  and  all  his  companions,  and  was  himself  cast  upon  the 
island  of  Ogygia,  over  which  the  nymph  Calypso  reigned. 
How  was  he  received  by  this  goddess  ?  She  received  him 
very  kindly,  and  he  remained  seven  years  upon  the  island. 
She  promised  him  immortality  if  he  would  marry  her;  but 
Ulysses  preferred  Penelope  and  his  little  island  of  Ithaca  to 
these  inducements,  and  Jupiter  having  desired  Calypso  not  to 
detain  him,  she  sent  him  away  on  a  raft.  He  had  much  diffi- 
culty in  gaining  the  island  of  the  Pheacians,  now  Corfu,  where 
Alcinous  reigned,  in  whose  brilliant  and  voluptuous  court  he 
was  detained  some  time.  At  length  he  departed,  loaded  with 
presents,  and  reached  Ithaca,  after  an  absence  of  twenty  years. 


V;98  MYTHOLOGY. 

What  did  he  do  on  his  arrival  ?  As  many  of  the  neighboring 
princes,  during  his  long  absence,  had  made  themselves  at  home 
in  his  house,  and  even  wished  to  force  Penelope  to  take  another 
husband,  Ulysses  was  obliged  to  disguise  himself  to  surprise 
them.  What  did  Penelope  tell  him  ?  Taking  him  for  a  friend 
of  Ulysses,  she  told  him  all  she  had  done  to  escape  the  impor- 
tunities of  her  suitors ;  and  that  she  had  promised  to  select  one 
from  among  them  so  soon  as  a  piece  of  tapestry  work,  on  which 
she  was  engaged,  should  be  finished ;  but  that  she  took  out  at 
night  all  she  had  done  in  the  day,  to  put  off  the  accomplishment 
of  her  promise.  She  added,  that  not  being  able  to  put  them  off 
longer,  she  had  determined,  by  the  advice  of  Minerva,  to  select 
the  one,  the  very  next  day,  who  should  be  able  to  hold  the  bow 
of  Ulysses,  and  make  the  arrows  pass  through  several  rings 
suspended  for  that  purpose.  What  next  did  he  do  ?  Ulysses 
approved  of  this  expedient,  and  after  all  the  suitors  had  tried  in 
vain  to  stretch  the  bow,  Ulysses,  still  disguised,  requested  to  be 
allowed  to  try  his  skill,  and  having  bent  the  bow  without  dif- 
ficulty, he  drew  upon  the  suitors  and  killed  every  one  in  turn. 
What  was  the  end  of  Ulysses  ?  Re-established  in  his  kingdom, 
there  was  no  drawback  to  his  felicity  except  the  prediction  of 
Tiresias ;  to  avoid  this  misfortune  he  was  about  retiring  to  some 
solitude,  when  Telegone,  the  son  whom  he  had  by  Circe,  came 
to  do  him  homage.  As  they  repulsed  him,  being  a  stranger,  he 
raised  a  tumult  at  the  door  of  the  palace,  which  Ulysses  coming 
out  to  quell,  was  shot  by  his  son  (who  did  not  know  him)  with 
a  poisoned  arrow.  Who  was  Palamedes  ?  He  was  the  son  of 
Nauplius,  king  of  Eubea.  He  commanded  the  Eubeans  at 
the  siege  of  Troy,  where  he  was  much  thought  of  for  his  mili- 
tary talent.  What  was  his  fate  ?  His  unfortunate  end  was 
brought  about  by  Ulysses,  to  avenge  himself  for  Palamedes 
having  obliged  him  to  join  the  Greek  forces.  He  accused  him 
of  holding  intercourse  with  the  enemy,  and  forged  letters  which 
were  placed  in  his  tent,  with  a  sum  of  money,  which  they  said 
had  been  sent  to  him  by  Priam.  Believing  these  evil  tidings, 
his  soldiers  revolted,  and  stoned  him.  Was  his  death  revenged  ? 
The  death  of  Palamedes  raised  in  the  breast  of  Nauplius  a  great 
desire  of  vengeance.  After  the  taking  of  Troy,  the  Grecian 
fleet,  on  its  return,  was  surprised  during  the  night  by  a  violent 
tempest.  Nauphus  then  lighted  fires  among  the  rocks  sur- 
rounding his  island,  with  the  design  of  attracting  the  Greeks, 
and  seeinn^  them  perish  among  them.  Fortune  aided  Nauplius; 
the  vessels  were  torn  to  pieces  among  the  rocks,  and  the  Gre- 
cians all  perished  in  the  wrecks,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 


MYTHOLOGY.  299 

number,  among  whom  was  Ulysses,  the  principal  object  of  Nau- 
plius'  hatred.  What  invention  is  attributed  to  Palamedes  ?  It 
is  said  that  he  taught  the  Greeks  to  form  battalions :  they  also 
attribute  to  him  the  use  of  the  watchword ;  and  also  the  inven- 
tion of  several  games,  such  as  dice  and  chess,  which  served  to 
amuse  the  Greeks  durug  the  fatigues  and  annoyances  of  a  long 
siege. 

What  was  the  history  of  Priam  ?  He  was  king  of  Troy,  and 
succeeded  his  father  Laomedon.  He  rebuilt  the  city,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  Hercules,  and  rendered  his  empire  the 
most  flourishing  in  the  world.  The  cairying  off  of  Helen,  by 
Paris,  put  an  end  to  his  prosperity,  as  the  Greeks  destroyed 
the  city  and  brought  a  miserable  end  on  Priam  and  his  whole 
family.  How  did  Priam  perish  ?  He  was  killed  by  Pyrrhus  ; 
surrounded  by  his  gods,  and  while  he  was  chnging  to  the  altar, 
the  son  of  Achilles  tore  him  from  the  arms  of  his  wife  and 
passed  his  sword  through  his  body.  What  became  of  Hecuba  ? 
She  only  escaped  death  to  fall  into  slavery.  She  became  the 
property  of  Ulysses,  who,  having  long  searched  for  her,  found 
her  at  last  among  the  tombs  of  her  children,  who  had  almost 
all  perished  before  her  eyes.  Taken  by  Polymnestor,  king  of 
Thrace,  to  whom  Priam  had  confided  the  care  of  his  youngest 
son  Polydor,  with  immense  treasures,  she  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  the  body  of  her  son,  whom  Polymnestor  had  killed. 
She  entered  the  palace  of  the  murderer  and  put  out  his  eyes, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Trojan  women ;  and  killed  with  her 
own  hands  the  king's  two  children.  Into  what  animal  was  she 
changed  ?  Stoned  by  the  guards  of  the  king,  she  is  said  to 
have  bitten  those  who  opposed  her :  at  length  the  gods  took 
pity  on  her  and  changed  her  into  a  she-bear.  This  story  is  no 
do'ibt  founded  on  the  imprecations  which  she  uttered  against 
the  Greeks.  Relate  the  exploits  of  Hector  ?  He  was  the  son 
of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  the  bravest  of  the  Trojans.  After 
having  covered  himself  with  glory  in  several  combats  with 
the  Greeks,  he  drove  them  from  all  the  ports  they  occupied  ; 
and  taking  advantage  of  Achilles'  absence,  set  fire  to  their 
fleet.  What  was  the  end  of  Patrocles  ?  Wishing  to  oppose 
the  progress  of  the  victor  he  took  the  arms  of  his  friend 
Achilles,  and  defied  K-^.ctor  to  single  combat,  but  perished  by 
his  hand.  What  was  Hector's  end  ?  The  desire  of  revenging 
the  death  of  his  friend  recalled  Achilles  to.  himself,  and  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops  once  more.  The  sight 
of  this  terrible  warrior  filled  Priam  and  Hecuba  with  alann, 
and  they  implored  Hector  not  to  fight  with  him,  but  he  was 


300  MYTHOLOGY. 

mexorable ;  and  after  having  performed  prodigies  of  valor,  h« 
was  killed  by  Achilles,  and  given  over  to  the  Greeks,  who  made 
him  drag  the  inanimate  corpse  three  -times  round  the  walls  oi 
Troy  and  the  tomb  of  Patrocles.  Who  demanded  his  body  ? 
Priam,  and  all  who  remained  of  his  family,  with  rich  presents 
tried  to  soften  the  wrath  of  the  conqueror,  and  implored  him  to 
give  up  the  body  of  his  son,  which  he  at  length  was  induced  to 
do ;  and  after  Troy  was  rebuilt,  the  Trojans  paid  divine  honors  to 
Hector.  Who  was  his  son  ?  Hector  left  one  son,  whose  name 
was  Astyanax.  As  the  soothsayer  Calchas  had  predicted  that 
if  he  lived  he  would  be  still  more  brave  than  his  father,  and 
some  day  would  avenge  his  death,  Andromache,  his  mother,  to 
conceal  him  from  the  fury  of  his  enemies,  hid  him  in  the  tomb 
of  Hector.  But  the  tenderness  of  this  afflicted  mother,  who 
could  not  keep  her  eyes  off  the  tomb,  betrayed  the  place  of  his 
concealment.  Ulysses  discovered  Astyanax,  and  threw  him 
from  the  walls  of  Troy.  What  became  of  Andromache  ?  After 
the  taking  of  Troy  she  became  the  slave  of  her  husband's  mur- 
derer, who  carried  her  to  Epirus,  and  there  married  her ;  after 
his  death,  she  became  the  wife  of  Hector's  brother,  Helenus, 
with  whom  she  dragged  out  a  miserable  existence,  never  being 
able  to  console  herself  for  the  death  of  Hector,  or  her  dear  son, 
Astyanax. 

Who  was  Paris  ?  The  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  Before 
he  was  born,  his  mother  dreamed  that  she  had  borne,  instead 
of  a  son,  a  firebrand.  The  soothsayers  predicted,  from  this, 
that  her  son,  when  bom,  would  one  day  cause  the  destruction 
of  Troy.  To  avoid  this,  Priam  commanded  one  of  his  servants 
to  put  him  to  death ;  but  Hercules'  prayers  prevailed,  and  the 
servant  committed  him  to  the  care  of  some  shepherds  on  Mount 
Ida,  where  he  soon  became  famous  for  his  beauty,  wit,  and 
address.  What  took  place  s^  the  nuptials  of  Thetis  ?  At  these 
nuptials  the  goddess  of  discord,  to  revenge  herself  for  not  hav- 
ing been  invited,  appeared  on  a  cloud,  and  threw  among  the 
goddesses  a  golden  apple,  on  which  these  words  were  written — 
'*  To  the  most  beautiful."  It  required  no  more  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  Oljnnpus ;  and  though  all  the  goddesses  pretended  to 
be  the  most  beautiful,  the  prize  of  beauty  was  most  vehemently 
contested  between  Venus,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  How  did  Jupiter 
end  the  dispute  ?  He  sent  the  three  ladies  to  Mount  Ida  to  be 
judged  by  Paris,  when  each  tried  the  force  of  argument  to 
induce  him  to  decide  in  her  favor.  Juno  promis'^d  him  power 
and  riches ;  Minerva,  wisdom  and  virtue ;  and  \>nus  tlic  most 
beautiful  woman  in  the  world.     How  did  Pans  n?t  f    Seduced 


MYTHOLOGY.  301 

by  the  beauty  of  Venus,  and  still  more  by  her  promises,  he  gave 
the  apple  to  her ;  and  from  that  moment  Juno  and  Minerva, 
enraged  at  not  having  obtained  the  prize,  swore  the  destruction 
of  Troy.  Did  not  Paris  carry  off  Helen  ?  Yes ;  having  been 
acknowledged  as  the  son  of  Priam,  he  was  sent  to  Salamine  to 
reclaim  Hesione,  the  sister  of  Priam,  who  had  been  carried  oflf 
by  Hercules.  At  the  instigation  of  Minerva,  Juno,  and  Venus, 
all  excited  by  different  motives,  he  stopped  on  his  way  at  the 
court  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  under  the  pretext  of  sacri- 
ficing to  Apollo.  This  prince  had  married  Helen,  the  daughter 
of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  a  princess  of  incomparable  beauty.  Abu- 
sing the  hospitality  of  Menelaus,  Paris  obtained  the  love  of  Helen, 
and  carried  her  oft'  to  Troy,  in  the  absence  of  her  husband. 
This  event  caused  the  ten  years'  siege  and  utter  ruin  of  Troy. 
What  were  the  exploits  of  Paris  ?  During  the  siege  he  fought 
with  Menelaus,  and  only  escaped  by  the  interposition  of  Venus. 
He  wounded  Diomede,  Machaon,  Palamedes,  and  treacherously 
caused  the  death  of  Achilles.  How  did  he  die  ?  He  was  mor- 
tally wounded  by  one  of  the  arrows  of  Hercules,  which  was 
thrown  at  him  by  Philoctetes.  He  then  had  himself  carried  to 
Mount  Ida,  under  the  care  of  the  nymph  QEnone,  whom  he  had 
loved  while  a  shepherd,  and  on  whom  Apollo  had  bestowed  the 
knowledge  of  medicinal  herbs.  Ifotwithstanding  the  infidelity 
of  her  lover,  QEnone  tried  all  her  skill  to  cure  him,  but  in  vain, 
the  arrow  with  which  he  was  wounded  had  been  poisoned. 
Paris  expired  in  the  arms  of  this  nymph,  who  died  of  grief  for 
his  loss.  What  was  the  fate  of  Cassandra  ?  Cassandra,  the 
sister  of  Paris  and  Hector,  obtained  from  Apollo,  who  loved 
her,  the  knowledge  of  future  events ;  but  this  god,  enraged  at 
her  insensibility  to  his  love,  and  being  unable  to  take  from  hei 
the  gift  he  had  bestowed,  caused  her  to  pass  for  an  insane 
person,  so  that  no  one  believed  what  she  foretold.  Having 
predicted  the  misfortunes  of  her  father,  and  the  whole  city,  she 
was  confined  in  a  tower,  where  she  never  ceased  singing  the 
miseries  of  her  country.  Agamemnon,  who  received  her  with 
his  portion  of  slaves  after  the  destruction  of  the  city,  touched 
by  her  merit  and  beauty,  took  her  with  him  to  Greece.  In  vain 
she  foretold  to  this  prince  the  unhappy  end  which  awaited  him, 
she  was  not  believed ;  and  Clytemnestra,  after  the  death  of 
Agamemnon,  caused  her  to  be  murdered,  with  two  children 
whom  she  had  borne  to  that  prince.  Who  was  Laocoon  ?  He 
was  the  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  the  priest  of  Apollo  and 
Kept^ane.  He  made  every  effort  to  dissuade  the  Trojans  from 
bringing  into  the  city  the  wooden  horse  which  the  Greeks  pre* 

26 


302  MYTHOLOGY. 

tended  to  have  abandoned,  saying  that  it  was  some  artifice  t« 
ensure  their  destruction;  and  to  prove  the  truth  of  what  he 
said,  threw  his  javehn  against  the  flanks  of  the  animal,  and  thfe 
sound  of  arms  within  was  plainly  heard  :  but  the  Trojans  wore 
Winded  by  the  behef  that  it  v^as  an  offering  to  Minerva.  What 
was  the  fate  of  Laocoon  and  his  sons  ?  Two  frightful  serpents 
came  out  of  the  sea,  and  threw  themselves  on  his  sons ;  and 
when  Laocoon,  hearing  their  cries,  rushed  to  their  assistance, 
the  serpents,  having  torn  the  sons  to  pieces,  strangled  Laocoon 
in  their  enormous  folds.  Has  not  this  catastrophe  been  repre- 
sented in  sculpture  ?  Yes  ;  it  is  the  subject  of  a  masterpiece  of 
Grecian  art,  which  still  exists,  and  is  m  the  palace  of  the  Vati- 
can at  Rome.  It  was  the  work  of  three  celebrated  artists — 
Polydore,Atenodore,and  Agesander,  natives  of  Rhodes,  who  cut 
it  from  one  solid  block  of  marble.  Who  was  Eneas  ?  The  son 
of  Venus  and  Anchises,  and  had  married  Creusa,  the  daughter 
of  Priam.  After  Helen  had  been  carried  off^,  Eneas,  seeing  the 
misery  which  this  would  bring  on  the  country,  wished  to  have 
Helen  given  up,  to  obtain  peace.  But  though  his  counsels 
were  peaceful,  he  did  not  conduct  himself  with  the  less  courage, 
and  Homer  has  celebrated  Hector  alone,  among  the  Trojans,  as 
more  courageous  than  he.  What  did  Eneas  do  after  the  siege 
of  Troy  ?  On  the  fatal  night  of  the  destruction  of  the  city  he 
fought  vahantly ;  but  being  unable  to  resist  against  such  odds, 
he  took  on  his  back  Anchises,  his  father,  and  his  Penates,  or 
household-gods,  and  leading  the  young  Ascanius,  his  son,  by 
the  hand,  he  retired  to  Mount  Ida,  with  all  the  Trojans  whom 
he  could  collect.  It  was  at  this  time  he  lost  his  wife,  Creusa ; 
some  time  after  she  appeared  to  him,  and  told  him  that  Cybele 
had  carried  her  off  to  assist  in  her  worship.  Where  was  Eneas 
thrown  by  a  tempest  ?  Having  constructed  a  fleet  of  twenty 
v^esseis,  and  coasted  along  the  shores  of  Thrace,  Greece,  and 
Epirus,  he  was  thrown  upon  the  coast  of  Africa  by  a  tempest, 
which  Juno  had  raised  from  her  continued  hatred  of  the  Tro- 
jans. He  was  received  at  Carthage  by  Djdo,  whom  Venus  had 
disposed  in  his  favor.  Who  was  Dido?  The  daughter  of 
Belus,  king  of  Tyre.  She  fled  from  that  city  to  escape  the 
cruelty  of  her  brother,  Pygmalion,  who  had  assassinated 
Sicheus,  her  husband,  to  obtain  his  riches.  Arriving  in  Africa, 
she  purchased  from  larbe,  one  of  the  kings  of  the  country,  as 
much  land  as  the  hide  of  an  ox,  cut  into  strings,  could  encircle ; 
and  on  this  site  she  founded  Carthage,  which  is  sometimes  called 
Byrsa,  which  means  the  hide  of  an  ox.  Go  on  with  the  adven- 
tures of  Dido  and  Eneas.     The  Trojan  hero  having  touched  the 


MYTHOLOGY.  803 

heart  of  Dido,  gave  himself  up  for  some  time  to  the  pleasure  of 
her  society  ;  but  at  length  Mercury  was  sent  by  Jupiter  to 
snatch  him  from  this  snare,  which  the  Hatred  of  Juno  had 
spread  for  his  glory,  and  ordered  him  to  go  into  Italy  to  seek 
the  kingdom  which  wSs  promised  to  his  race.  Dido  could  not 
survive  the  departure  of  Eneas,  and,  in  despair,  mounted  a 
funeral  pile,  which  she  had  ordered  to  be  erected,  and  plunged 
into  her  heart  the  poniard  which  she  had  at  one  time  given  to 
the  Trojan  prince.  What  course  did  Eneas  pursue  ?  Another 
tempest  threw  him  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  there  Eneas 
celebrated  funereal  games  in  honor  of  the  death  of  Anchises, 
who  had  died  in  that  Island  the  preceding  year ;  and  afterwards 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  consulted  the  Cumean  Sibyl,  to  know 
how  he  should  descend  to  the  infernal  regions.  The  Sibyl 
commanded  him  to  take  with  him  a  golden  oar  as  a  present  to 
Proserpine.  Eneas  obeyed,  descended  to  the  infernal  regions, 
and  visited  the  Elysian  fields,  in  which  he  saw  his  father  and 
the  Trojan  heroes,  from  whom  he  learned  his  own  destiny  and 
that  of  his  posterity.  Where  did  he  at  length  rest  ?  On  his 
return  from  the  infernal  regions,  he  encamped  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber,  where  Cybele  changed  his  vessels  into  nymphs ;  and 
knowing  that  the  gods  intended  him  to  take  up  his  abode  there, 
he  went  to  Latinus,  king  of  Latium,  who,  warned  by  an  oracle, 
received  him  favorably,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  Lavinia  in 
marriage.  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutulii,  who  pretended  to  the 
hand  of  this  princess,  took  up  arms  to  sustain  his  rights.  The 
Rutulii  were  overcome  in  two  battles ;  and  at  length,  in  single 
combat  with  Eneas,  their  king  Turnus  was  killed,  and  lost  at 
once  his  life,  his  wife,  and  his  kingdom.  What  became  of 
Eneas  ?  After  a  peaceful  reign  of  four  years,  the  Rutulii  having 
again  made  war,  Eneas  disappeared  during  the  battle,  carried  off, 
it  was  said,  by  Venus.  Who  succeeded  Eneas  ?  Ascanius,  his 
son,  succeeded  him,  and  built  Alba.  The  descendants  of  Eneas, 
to  the  number  of  fourteen,  reigned  over  the  Latins,  to  Numitor, 
the  grandfather  of  Romulus,' the  founder  of  Rome.  What  cele- 
brated poet  has  related  the  adventures  of  Eneas  ?  Virgil,  a 
celebrated  Latin  poet,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  has 
sung  the  adventures  and  misfortunes  of  Eneas,  in  a  poem  called 
the  Enead.  It  has  been  objected  to  this  poem,  that  Virgil  com- 
mitted an  anachronism  in  making  Eneas  a  contemporary  of  Dido, 
when  he  lived  three  hundred  years  before  her ;  but  Virgil  only 
hnagined  the  love  of  Eneas  for  Dido,  to  desc^be  the  interests 
which,  for  such  a  length  of  time,  divided  Rome  and  Carthage. 
Tell  the  birth  of  Orion.     It  is  said  that  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 


304  MYTHOLOGY 

Mercury  one  day  visited  a  villager  of  Beotia ;  this  poor  old  raai 
killed  his  only  ox  to  provide  them  with  food,  and  Jupiter,  to 
reward  him,  promised  to  give  him  whatever  he  might  desire. 
The  old  man,  who  had  neither  wife  nor  child,  asked  for  a  son. 
and  from  the  hide  of  the  ox  Avhich  he  hid  slain,  Orion  stepped 
forth.  He  was  afterwards  celebrated  for  his  knowledge  of 
astronomy,  which  he  taught  to  Atlas,  and  by  his  passion  for 
the  chase,  which,  as  the  poets  say,  he  still  preserves  in  the 
Elysian  fields  as  a  mighty  hunter.  What  further  is  said  of 
him  ?  That  he  was  one  of  the  handsomest  men  of  his  time ; 
he  was  so  tall  that  he  is  represented  as  a  giant,  who  could  cross 
the  sea  with  his  head  above  the  waves.  Diana,  ou  one  occasion, 
seeing  this  head,  and  wishing  to  prove  her  skill  with  the  bow  in 
the  presence  of  Apollo,  let  fly  a  shaft,  which  struck  Orion  and 
wounded  him  mortally.  Others  have  related  his  end  dif- 
ferently, by  saying,  that  having  offended  Diana,  she  sent  a 
scorpion  which  stung  him  to  death.  But  Diana  very  soon 
regretted  the  death  of  Orion,  and  implored  Jupiter  to  place  him 
among  the  constellations,  where  he  is  now  to  be  seen  among  the 
most  beautiful  and  brilliant. 

Tell  the  story  of  Baucis  and  Philemon.  They  were  two  aged 
people,  who,  when  Jupiter  and  Mercury,  travelling  through 
Phrygia  disguised  as  common  mortals,  were  refused  admittance 
by  the  inhabitants  of  a  village  where  they  lived,  received  them 
hospitably.  What  recompense  did  Jupiter  bestow  upon  them  1 
He  ordered  them  to  follow  him  to  a  high  mountain  ;  from  thence 
they  looked  down  upon  the  valley  and  village  which  they  had 
left,  and  saw  it  completely  covered  with  water,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  their  house,  which  was  changed  into  a  temple.  What 
promise  did  Jupiter  make  them  ?  To  refuse  them  nothing. 
They  desired  to  be  priest  and  priestess  of  the  temple,  and  not 
to  die  the  one  before  the  other.  Their  wish  was  accomplished  ; 
they  lived  to  be  extremely  old,  when,  one  day,  Philemon  saw 
Baucis  was  changing  into  a  linden-tree,  and  Baucis  was  aston- 
ished to  find  Philemon  changing  into  an  oak  ;  they  then  tenderly 
embraced,  bade  each  other  adieu,  and  long  continued  to  shade  the 
temple  with  their  foliage.  Who  were  Cleobis  and  Biton  ?  They 
were  the  daughters  of  one  of  Juno's  priestesses,  at  Argos.  On 
one  occasion,  when  it  was  required  that  their  mother  should  be 
drawn  on  a  chariot  to  the  temple,  not  having  horses,  Cleobis 
and  Biton  fastened  themselves  to  her  chariot  and  dragged  her 
thither.  The  mother,  overcome  by  this  proof  of  filial  love, 
implored  Juno  to  bestow  on  her  children  the  greatest  blessing 
which  could  befall  humanity.     The  next  day  they  both  died 


MYTHOLOGY.  305 

suddenly,  to  prove  that  the  greatest  blessing  which  can  befall 
human  beings,  is  to  be  removed  early  in  life  from  the  troubles 
and  anxieties  we  here  endure.  The  inhabitants  of  Argos  raised 
statues  to  their  memory  in  the  temple  of  Delphos. 

Who  was  Niobe?  Niobe  was  the  daughter  of  Tantalus, 
and  sister  of  Pelops.  She  married  Amphion,  king  of  Thebes, 
by  whom  she  had  fourteen  children,  seven  daughters  and  seven 
sons.  How  did  she  incur  the  hatred  of  Latona  ?  Boasting  of 
her  fruitfulness,  she  despised  Latona,  who  had  had  but  two 
children,  Apollo  and  Diana.  She  went  so  far  as  to  oppose  the 
worship  offered  her,  pretending  to  have  a  more  just  right  to  al- 
tars herself.  How  did  Latona  avenge  herself?  Latona  charged 
iier  children  to  avenge  this  affront ;  accordingly  Apollo  and 
Diana  shot  the  sons  of  Niobe  with  their  arrows,  and  the  daugh- 
ters running  to  their  brothers*  assistance,  shared  the  same  fate. 
What  was  Niobe's  fate  ?  When  the  unhappy  mother  arrived, 
overwhelmed  with  grief  and  despair,  she  sat  down  by  the 
bodies  of  her  dear  children,  watering  them  with  her  tears,  and 
appearing  perfectly  lifeless  from  her  sorrow.  She  was  changed 
into  a  rock.  Where  was  she  transported  ?  A  whirlwind  car- 
ried her  into  Lydia,  to  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  where  she 
continued  to  weep,  her  tears  turning  into  marble  as  they  fell. 

Who  was  Philomela  ?  Philomela  was  the  daughter  of  Pan- 
dion,  king  of  Athens.  She  accompanied  her  sister  Prsene,  wife 
of  Tereus,  king  of  Thrace,  into  that  country.  Relate  her  mis- 
fortunes. Tereus  falhng  in  love  with  Philomela,  and  finding 
her  insensible  to  his  persuasions,  confined  her  in  a  close  prison. 
Disturbed  by  the  dreadful  reproaches  of  his  victim,  he  cut  out 
her  tongue.  How  d^d  Philomela  inform  her  sister  of  it  ?  A 
year  passed  before  she  could  do  so ;  her  sister  meantime  be- 
Ueved  her  dead :  at  last  she  managed  to  trace  upon  the  cur- 
tains with  a  needle,  her  unhappy  situation  and  the  infidelity 
of  Tereus.  What  was  Prsene's  revenge  ?  Preene,  in  the  eager- 
ness of  her  desire  for  revenge,  released  her  sister,  killed  her 
own  son  Itys,  and  at  a  great  feast  served  up  his  limbs  to  her 
husband.  Philomela  appeared  at  the  end  of  the  feast,  and 
threw  the  head  of  the  child  on  the  table.  Tereus,  at  sight  of 
this,  transported  with  rage,  calls  for  his  arms ;  but  the  princesses 
escaped,  reaching  a  vessel  which  awaited  them,  and  arrived  at 
Athens.  Into  what  were  they  metamorphosed?  Ovid  says 
that  Philomela  was  changed  into  a  nightingale,  and  Prsene  into 
a  swalloAv.  Tereus,  who  pursued  them,  was  metamorphosed 
into  a  lapwing,  and  Itys  into  a  goldfinch.  Who  was  Pygmalion  ? 
Pygmalion  was  a  famous  sculptor,  who  had  made  an  ivory 
26* 


306  MYTHOLOGY. 

statue  of  Venus.  He  found  it  so  beautiful,  that  he  besought 
the  goddess  to  give  hfe  to  the  work  of  his  chisel.  His  prayer 
being  granted,  he  married  his  statue,  and  by  her  he  had  a  son 
named  Paphus,  who  built  the  city  of  Paphos. 

Who  was  Atalanta  ?  Atalanta,  daughter  of  Schoeneus,  king 
of  Scyros,  was  a  princess  of  extraordinary  beauty,  who  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Atalanta  who  married  Meleager. 
The  oracle  having  predicted  that  after  her  marriage  she  would 
cease  to  have  a  human  form,  she  resolved  never  to  marry.  As 
she  was  so  swift  in  races,  which  the  most  active  men  could  not 
accomplish,  she  declared,  to  free  herself  from  the  importunities 
of  a  crowd  of  pretenders,  that  she  would  only  give  her  hand 
to  the  one  who  should  vanquish  her  in  the  course,  and  that  she 
would  destroy  all  those  who  should  be  defeated.  By  whom  was 
she  vanquished  ?  Many  had  already  failed,  when  Hippomenes, 
protected  by  Venus,  presented  himself.  The  goddess  had  given 
him  three  golden  apples,  plucked  by  Hercules  in  the  garden  of 
*  Hesperides.  Relate  the  struggle.  The  signal  is  given ;  Hip- 
pomenes rushes  first  into  the  list,  and  letting  his  golden  apples 
fall  adroitly  at  some  distance  apart,  Atalanta  picks  them  up, 
and  thus  loses  time.  She  is  vanqjiished,  and  becomes  the  prize 
of  the  victor.  Into  what  were  they  metamorphosed  ?  A  short 
time  afterwards  they  offended  Cybele.  The  angry  goddess 
changed  them  into  hons. 

What  does  fal)le  say  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe  ?  Pyramus,  a 
young  Assyrian,  had  become  celebrated  for  his  passion  for 
Thisbe.  As  their  parents  prevented  them  from  seeing  each 
other,  the  two  lovers  fixed  upon  a  rendezvous  under  a  white 
mulberry-tree,  near  the  city  of  Ninus.  Relate  the  end  of  Pyra- 
mus and  Thisbe.  Thisbe  arrived  first  at  the  appointed  place. 
There  she  was  attacked  by  a  lioness  with  her  jaws  dropping 
blood.  In  her  fright,  the  young  girl  fled  with  so  much  precipi- 
tation, that  she  dropped  her  veil.  The  beast  threw  herself 
upon  it,  tore  it  to  pieces,  and  covered  it  with  blood.  Pyramus 
arrived  at  the  rendezvous,  found  the  veil,  and  not  doubting 
but  \hat  Thisbe  had  been  devoured,  he  pierced  himself  with 
his  sword.  Afterwards  Thisbe  came  from  her  retreat,  found 
Pyramus  expiring,  and  put  an  end  to  her  life  with  the  same 
sword.  What  metamorphosis  did  the  mulberry- tree  undergo  ? 
It  is  said  that  the  mulberry-tree  was  stained  with  the  blood  of 
these  lovers,  and  that  the  mulberries  it  bore  became  red,  al 
though  they  had  before  been  white. 

Who  was  Deucalion?     DeucaHon,   son  of  Prometheus  and 
Pandora,  had  married  Pyrrha,  daughter  of  Epimetheus.     He 


MYTHOLOGY.  307 

reigned  over  Thessaly,  near  Parnassus,  when  the  famous  deluge 
which  bears  his  name  occurred.  Who  sent  this  deluge  ?  Jupi- 
ter, indignant  at  the  perversity  of  men,  resolved  to  drown  the 
human  race.  The  surface  of  the  earth  was  inundated,  except 
one  mountain  alone  in  Phocis,  called  Parnassus.  Who  was 
spared  in  the  deluge  ?  Deucalion,  the  most  righteous  of  men, 
5ind  Pyrrha  his  wife,  the  most  virtuous  of  women,  alone  escaped 
the  flood.  The  little  bark  which  bore  them  found  a  resting- 
place  on  Parnassus.  Did  they  not  consult  Themis  ?  As  soon 
as  the  waters  were  withdrawn,  they  went  to  consult  Themis, 
who  gave  his  oracles  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus,  and  who  ordered 
them  to  veil  their  heads  and  cast  behind  them  the  bones  of 
their  mother.  Deucalion,  after  having  pondered  a  long  time  on 
the  meaning  of  this  oracle,  understood  that  their  common  mo- 
ther was  the  earth — the  stones  must  then  be  the  bones.  They 
gathered  together  stones,  therefore,  and  having  thrown  them 
behind  them,  those  of  Deucalion  changed  into  men,  and  those 
of  Pyrrha  into  women. 

Were  not  the  winds  divinities  ?  The  winds  were  divinities, 
children  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  The  ancients  placed  the  so- 
journ of  these  divinities  in  the  Eolian  isles,  (Liparion,)  and  gave 
them  Eolus  for  king,  who  kept  them  chained  in  vast  caverns. 
What  were  the  four  principal  winds?  The  four  principal  winds, 
among  the  Romans,  were  Boreas,  or  north  wind ;  Eurus,  or  the 
east  wind ;  Auster,  the  south  wind ;  Zephyrus,  the  west  wind. 
How  is  Boreas  represented  ?  Boreas  is  represented  with  a 
hard  and  troubled  countenance,  because  he  raises  tempests  and 
covers  the  earth  with  ice  and  hoar-frost.  He  is  described  en- 
veloped in  clouds  when  he  passes  through  the  heavens,  and  in 
dust  on  earth.  Who  were  the  wife  and  children  of  Boreas? 
Having  carried  off  the  nymph  Orytha,  daughter  of  Erectheus, 
king  of  Athens,  Boreas  took  her  into  Thrace,  and  by  her  had 
two  sons,  Calais  and  Zetes,  who  took  the  voyage  of  the  Col- 
chia  with  the  Argonauts.  These  two  brothers  had  wings,  which 
grew  as  their  hair  did.  They  were  killed  by  Hercules,  because 
they  opposed  the  returning  of  the  vessel  of  the  Argonauts  for 
this  hero,  who  had  left  it  to  search  for  the  young  Hylas,  whom 
the  young  nymphs  had  carried  off  as  he  was  drawing  water 
from  a  well.  How  is  Eurus  described?  The  moderns  de- 
scribe Eurus  as  a  young  man  with  wings,  who  sows  flowers 
in  his  path  with  either  hand  as  he  passes.  Behind  him  is  the 
rising  sun.  Painters  give  lum  a  black  color,  because  he  blows 
from  Ethiopia,  which  is  inhabited  by  negroes.  How  is  Auster 
represented  ?     Under  the  form  of  a  winged  man,  treading  the 


308  MYTHOLOGY. 

clouds.  He  blows  with  inflated  cheeks  to  show  his  violence, 
and  holds  in  his  hand  a  watering-pot,  an  emblem  of  the  rain 
which  he  generally  brings  with  him.  How  is  Zephyriis  de- 
scribed ?  Zephyrus,  the  husband  of  Flora,  is  represented  by 
the  poets  as  a  mild  and  gentle-looking  young  man.  He  haa 
butterfly's  wings  and  a  wreath  of  all  sorts  of  flowers,  symbols 
of  his  beneficent  influence  upon  nature.  Were  not  temples 
raised  to  the  winds  ?  In  many  countries  temples  were  raised 
to  the  winds.  At  Athens  an  octagonal  temple  was  consecrated 
to  them,  in  each  angle  of  which  was  placed  a  fig'ire  of  one  of 
the  winds,  corresponding  to  that  point  of  the  heavens  whence 
it  blows. 

What  was  divination  ?  Divination,  a  science  whose  object 
was  the  art  of  seeing  into  the  future  through  superstitious 
means,  formed  a  considerable  part  of  the  pagan  theology.  The 
most  celebrated  soothsayers  among  the  ancients  were  Tiresias, 
Amphiaraus,  and  Calchas.  Who  was  Tiresias  ?  Tiresias  owed 
his  origin  to  one  of  the  warriors  born  of  the  serpents'  teeth, 
sown  in  the  earth  by  Cadmus  during  the  conquest  of  the  Gold- 
en Fleece.  One  day  he  chanced  upon  two  serpents  entwined 
upon  Mount  Cyllene,  he  struck  them  with  a  stick,  and  imme- 
diately they  became  women.  After  having  retained  this  sex 
for  seven  years,  he  found  them  again — two  serpents  in  the  same 
place ;  and  striking  them  again  with  his  stick,  they  became 
men  immediately.  Why  did  he  become  blind  ?  As  he  pre- 
tended to  know  all  the  advantages  and  inconveniences  of  the 
two  sexes,  he  was  made  the  arbiter  of  a  dispute  which  arose  be- 
tween Jupiter  and  Juno  on  the  question  as  to  which  of  the  sexes 
is  the  most  happy  in  marriage.  Tiresias  decided  in  favor  of 
women.  Juno,  whose  opinion  was  different,  was  so  irritated, 
that  she  deprived  him  of  sight.  Jupiter,  to  make  amends  to 
him,  made  hin;  one  of  the  greatest  soothsayers  of  his  time,  and 
prolonged  his  days  beyond  the  length  of  five  ordinary  lives. 
Who  was  Amphiaraus  ?  He  was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Hy- 
permnestra,  and,  like  Tiresias,  was  celebrated  as  a  soothsayer, 
•n  the  time  of  the  Theban  war.  Having  learned  by  his  art  that 
he  should  perish  in  this  war,  he  hid  himself,  that  he  might  not 
go  to  it.  But  Eriphyle,  his  wife,  seduced  by  the  present  of  a 
necklace,  revealed  the  place  of  his  retreat  to  Polynices.  Am- 
phiaraus was  obliged  to  go,  and  he  saw  the  destiny  he  had 
foreseen  accomplished,  as  he  was  -returning  from  the  expedi- 
tion. Jupiter  precipitated  him  with  his  chariot  into  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  with  a  thunderbolt.  Was  worship  rendered  him  ? 
He  was  placed  in  the  ranks  of  the  gods  after  his  death,  and  the 


MYTHOLOGY. 


309 


Orapians,  a  people  of  Attica,  built  a  temple  to  him,  whose  oracles 
became  very  famous.  Say  what  is  known  of  Calchas.  Calchas 
received  from  Apollo  the  science  of  knowing  the  past,  the  pres- 
ent, and  'he  future.  He  was  high-priest  and  soothsayer  in  the 
Grecian  army  which  fought  against  Troy.  Nothing  important 
was  allowed  to  pass  without  his  advice  being  taken ;  and  it  ap- 
pears that  he  concerted  the  sense  of  his  oracles  with  Agamem- 
non and  Ulysses.  The  Fates  had  decided  that  he  should  die 
as  s'^on  as  jie  should  meet  a  more  able  soothsayer  than  him- 
self. He  actually  died  of  grief  in  the  forest  of  Clarus,  (which 
was  consecrated  to  Apollo,)  because  he  had  not  been  able  to 
solve  the  enigmas  of  another  soothsayer  named  Mopsus. 

What  is  understood  by  the  Sibyls  ?  The  ancients  have  given 
this  name  to  certain  women,  to  whom  they  attributed  the  know- 
ledge of  the  future,  and  the  gift  of  prophecy.  The  name,  which 
signifies  "inspired,"  was  at  first  particularly  applied  to  the 
prophetess  of  Delphos ;  but  it  afterwards  became  common  to 
all  women  who  delivered  oracles.  Ten  sibyls  are  generally 
counted,  of  whom  the  principal  were  those  of  Delphos,  the 
daughter  of  the  soothsayer  Tiresias ;  the  Libyan  sibyl,  daughter 
of  Jupiter  and  Lamia ;  and  that  of  Cumse,  who  resided  in  a  city 
of  that  name  in  Italy.  It  was  the  latter  who  presented  Tarquin 
with  the  sibylline  verses.  What  of  these  books  ?  They  con- 
tained the  destiny  of  Rome,  and  were  consulted  during  great 
calamities.  They  were  confided  to  the  care  of  two  priests, 
called  duumvirs,  who  were  forbidden,  on  pain  of  death,  to  let 
any  one  see  them.  This  collection  of  oracles  was  consumed  in 
the  burning  of  the  capitol,  under  Sylla's  dictatorship.  They 
were  replaced  by  new  books,  composed  of  all  the  sibylline 
verses  that  could  be  gathered  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia ;  but 
these  books  never  possessed  the  same  influence  over  the  minds 
of  the  people.  Who  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the  sibyls  ? 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  sibyls  was  that  of  Cumse,  who 
was  said  to  have  been  inspired  by  Apollo,  and  who  delivered 
her  oracles  from  the  depths  of  a  cave  in  the  temple  of  this  god. 
This  cave  had  a  hundred  doors,  whence  proceeded  the  terrible 
voices  which  pronounced  the  replies  of  the  prophetess.  The 
verses  given  by  the  sibyl  were  carefully  preserved  here ;  from 
all  parts  she  was  consulted,  and  her  oracles  held  in  as  great 
reverence  among  the  Romans,  as  those  of  Delphos  among  the 
Greeks.  What  is  related  of  this  sibyl  of  Cumse  ?  This  sibyl, 
bom  at  Cumse,  was  called  Demophile,  or  Herophile,  and  was 
the  daughter  of  Glaucus  and  a  priestess  of  Apollo.  It  is  related 
that  this  god,  struck  with  her  beauty,  offered  (to  gain  an  influ- 


310  MYTHOLOGY. 

ence  upon  her)  to  grant  any  wish  she  might  ask  of  him.  She 
asked  to  be  allowed  to  live  as  many  years  as  she  had  grains  of 
sand  in  her  hand.  Apollo  consented  to  it,  and  granted,  be- 
sides, that  she  might  always  preserve  her  youth  and  freshness. 
The  daughter  of  Glaucus  refused  this  last  gift,  and  a  sad  and 
languishing  old  age  succeeded  to  her  youth  of  bloom.  In  the 
time  of  Virgil,  she  had  already  hved  seven  hundred  years ;  and 
to  complete  the  number  of  grains  of  sand  in  her  hand,  she  had 
yet  three  hundred  more  to  hve.  After  this  time,  her  body, 
consumed  by  age  and  infirmities,  by  degrees  wasted  away,  and 
she  could  be  recognised  only  by  her  voice,  which  the  Fates  had 
endowed  with  eternal  duration. 

What  are  the  fabulous  divinities  of  other  nations  ?  Those  of 
Egypt,  Babylon,  Persia,  the  Indies,  Gaul,  and  Scandinavia,  the 
most  celebrated  pagan  nations  after  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Who  was  Osiris  ?  The  most  famous  of  the  Egyptian  deities ; 
he  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe,  and  was  married  to  his 
sister  Isis,  who  received  as  much  honor  from  the  Egyptians  as 
her  brother.  Where  did  Osiris  reign  ?  He  was  king  of  Argos ; 
but  he  left  his  kingdom  to  his  brother  -^gialeus,  and  went  to 
Egypt,  where  he  reigned  jointly  with  Isis,  taking  particular 
care  to  civilize  their  subjects,  to  polish  their  morals,  to  give 
them  good  and  salutary  laws,  and  to  teach  them  agriculture. 
Give  some  further  account  of  him.  After  he  had  accomplished 
a  complete  reform  at  home,  Osiris  resolved  to  go  and  conquer 
the  world,  and  left  his  kingdom  Avith  an  immense  army.  He 
made  his  wife  regent  during  his  absence,  and  gave  her  Mercury 
to  advise  her,  Hercules  for  her  general,  and  Argus  as  minister ; 
who,  wishing  to  hear  of  his  success,  established  in  the  principal 
cities  a  hundred  officers,  who  were  called  the  eyes  of  Argus, 
In  a  short  time  Osiris  had  conquered  many  nations,  more  by 
mildness  and  clemency,  than  the  force  of  arms  could  havo 
effected.  What  happened  during  his  absence?  Typhon,  his 
brother,  raised  seditions,  and  endeavored  to  make  himself  pop- 
ular. Osiris,  on  his  return,  tried  to  convince  his  brother  of  his 
ill  conduct,  but  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  attempt.  Typhon  invited 
him  to  a  banquet,  and  proposed  to  his  friends  to  measure  them- 
selves in  a  coffer  of  the  most  elaborate  workmanship,  and  who- 
ever should  be  the  same  length,  should  receive  it  as  a  gift. 
Oshis,  suspecting  nothing,  followed  the  example  of  his  treach- 
erous friends,  and  no  sooner  was  he  in  it,  than  the  conspirators 
closed  the  coffer,  and  threw  it  into  the  Nile.  How  did  Isis  act 
on  hearing  of  this  tragical  event  ?  She  searched  for  the  body, 
and  fortunately  foimd  it  on  the  coasts  of  Phoenicia,  where  it 


MYTHOLOGY.  till 

had  been  conveyed  by  the  waves ;  brought  it  into  Egypt,  and 
raised  a  beautiful  monument  to  his  memory.  Who  dethroned 
Typhon  ?  Orus,  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis ;  but  the  Titans, 
who  rose  against  him,  put  him  to  death,  Isis  obtained  immor- 
tality for  him,  and  taught  him  medicine  and  the  art  of  divina- 
tion. It  is  generally  thought  that  Orus  and  Apollo  are  the 
same  person  in  mythology.  What  honors  were  paid  to  Osiris 
and  Isis  ?  As  they  had  particularly  instructed  their  subjects 
'.n  cultivating  the  ground,  the  Egyptians  chose  the  bull  and  cow 
Co  represent  them,  and  paid  the  most  superstitious  adoration  to 
those  animals.  What  was  the  tradition  concerning  them  ?  It 
was  supposed  their  souls  had  taken  their  abode  in  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  sometimes  these  luminaries  were  worshipped  as  being* 
Osiris  and  Isis.  What  is  said  of  the  bull  Apis?  The  Egyp- 
tians believed  the  soul  of  Osiris  had  gone  into  the  bull,  because 
that  animal  had  been  of  the  most  essential  service  in  the  culti- 
vation of  the  ground.  The  bull  that  was  chosen  was  always 
distinguished  by  particular  marks,  said  to  have  been  made  when 
the  animal  was  young.  Describe  the  bull.  His  body  was  black ; 
ne  had  a  square  white  spot  on  the  forehead,  the  figure  of  an 
eagle  upon  the  back,  and  his  right  side  was  marked  with  a 
whitish  spot,  resembling  a  crescent.  How  was  he  regarded  ? 
As  an  oracle :  when  he  ate  his  food,  it  was  considered  a  favor- 
able answer ;  if  he  refused  it,  it  was  a  very  bad  sign.  At  his 
death  the  greatest  cries  and  lamentations  were  heard  in  Egypt, 
as  if  Osiris  was  just  dead,  and  the  deepest  mourning  prevailed 
until  he  had  a  successor.  What  festivals  Avere  instituted  in 
honor  of  Osiris  and  Isis  ?  Those  held  annually  :  of  these,  the 
festival  of  Isis  was  the  most  celebrated  ;  it  occurred  yearly,  at 
the  period  when  she  had  wept  for  the  death  of  Osiris,  and 
the  Egyptians  pretended  that  the  annual  and  regular  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile  proceeded  from  her  abundant  tears.  How  is 
Osiris  represented  ?  With  a  cap  on  his  head  like  a  mitre,  and 
with  two  horns ;  he  held  a  stick  in  his  left  hand,  and  in  his  right 
a  whip  with  three  thongs.  Sometimes  he  appears  with  the 
head  of  a  hawk,  as  that  bird,  by  its  quick  and  piercing  eyes,  is 
a  fit  emblem  of  the  sun.  How  was  Isis  represented  ?  As  a 
woman,  with  the  horns  of  a  cow,  emblematic  of  the  phases  of 
the  moon,  holding  a  lute  in  the  right  hand,  and  a  vase  in  the 
left.  She  is  often  described  as  wearing  a  veil,  with  the  earth  at 
her  feet,  and  crowned  with  towers,  like  Cybele.  Sometimes  she 
has  wings,  a  quiver  of  arrows  on  her  shoulder,  and  a  horn  of 
plenty  in  her  left  hand,  while  her  right  holds  a  throne,  on  which 
are  the  helmet  and  sceptre  of  Osiris.     Where  was  Isis  wor- 


312  MYTHOLOGY. 

shipped  ?  Botli  in  Italy  and  Gaul.  Wise  men  have  thought 
Paris  received  its  name  because  it  was  built  near  a  temple  ded- 
icated to  Isis,  ''para  Isidos."  She  was  believed  to  protect 
Paris.  It  is  said  by  some  writers,  that  she  arrived  there  in  a 
vessel,  and  for  this  reason  Paris  has  a  vessel  in  its  coat  of  arms. 
It  is  an  extraordinary  fact,  that  at  Cholula,  in  Central  America, 
there  is  a  temple  closely  resembhng  those  dedicated  to  Osiris 
and  Isis  in  Egypt.  Did  not  Egyptians  Avorship  other  animals  ? 
Yes ;  the  dog,  the  cat,  the  crocodile,  etc.  If  one  of  these 
animals  was  killed,  even  by  accident,  it  was  considered  a  crime 
punishable  with  death ;  and  in  case  of  famine,  the  Egyptians 
would 'rather  devour  one  another  than  touch  one  of  them.  Was 
this  worship  general  ?  No,  they  did  not  agree  in  their  worship ; 
for  at  one  place  the  crocodile  was  worshipped,  at  another  the 
ichneumon,  an  enemy  of  the  crocodile,  etc.  These  differences 
in  rehgion  caused  much  unhappiness  and  many  quarrels.  What 
was  the  origin  of  this  worship  ?  It  is  said  to  have  originated 
at  the  time  when  the  gods,  being  pursued  by  the  Titans,  took 
refuge  in  Egypt,  and,  the  better  to  conceal  themselves,  assumed 
the  form  of  animals. 

Who  was  the  greatest  divinity  of  the  Babylonians  ?  Belus, 
supposed  to  be  the  sun ;  his  temple,  at  Babylon,  was  the  most 
ancient  and  most  magnificent  in  the  world ;  it  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  famous  tower  of  Babel.  Who  were  their  priests  ? 
The  Chaldeans,  who  are  highly  commended  for  their  skill  in  the 
science  of  astronomy;  but  they  seem  to  have  pursued  this 
study  no  farther  than  it  might  tend  to  aid  their  own  views,  as 
they  pretended  to  look  into  futurity  by  means  of  the  stars. 
What  was  the  Persian  rehgion  ?  It  appears  that  the  Persians 
believed  but  in  one  god,  as  no  temples  have  ever  been  seen  to 
lead  us  to  form  a  contrary  opinion.  The  sun,  which  they  adored 
under  the  name  of  Mithra,  and  the  sacred  fire  so  carefully  pre- 
served, were  considered  as  emblems  of  the  divine  power.  What 
is  said  of  their  priests  1  They  were  called  Magi,  and  possessed 
great  influence,  on  account  of  their  power  and  wisdom.  Zoro- 
aster was  the  founder  of  their  sect.  What  were  theh  religious 
tenets  ?  They  had  two  principles  :  one,  Oromasses,  was  the 
source  of  every  thing  good ;  and  the  other,  Arimanius,  was  evil, 
from  whom  sprang  all  manner  of  ills.  The  good  principle  was 
represented  by  light,  the  bad  by  darkness. 


MYTHOLOGY  313 

THE  DIVINITIES  OF  INDIA. 

Thexe  are  three  great  Indian  divinities,  worshipped  as  one; 
these  are  Brahma,  Shiva,  and  Vishnu.  What  are  the  properties 
of  each  ?  The  first  is  the  creative  power,  the  second  the  destruc- 
tive, and  the  third  the  preserving.  These  three  divinities  are 
worshipped  under  the  human  form  as  a  being  with  three  heads. 
What  is  the  origin  of  Brahma?  The  Indians  imagine  that 
from  the  agitation  of  the  waves,  a  golden  egg  was  produced 
more  brilHant  than  a  thousand  suns,  from  which  came  forth 
Brahma,  the  father  of  mankind.  Was  he  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  universe  ?  Yes  ;  after  remaining  many  years  in  his 
egg,  he  divided  it  into  two  parts,  with  which  he  formed  heaven 
and  earth.  He  governed  India  with  great  wisdom,  and  gave 
his  people  the  laws  by  which  his  sect  is  still  guided.  Name 
one  of  these  laws.  He  commanded  his  worshippers  to  eat  only 
fruits,  and  not  to  kill  any  living  thing ;  beheving  in  the  doctrine 
of  Metempsychosis,  that  the  souls  of  men,  after  death,  pass 
into  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  How  is  Brahma  represented  ? 
With  four  arms  and  four  heads ;  he  holds  in  one  hand  a  circle, 
the  emblem  of  immortality;  in  another  fire,  which  signifies 
power;  and  with  the  two  others  he  writes  on  the  "  Olles,"  or 
Indian  books.  These  are  the  symbols  of  legislative  power. 
How  is  Shiva  represented  ?  He  is  also  considered  supreme,  and 
is  represented  destroying  or  changing  the  figures  of  men.  He  is 
painted  with  three  eyes.  How  is  Vishnu  described?  This 
god  is  particularly  celebrated  by  his  nine  metamorphoses,  each 
of  which  is  filled  with  absurdities.  The  Indians  say  that  under 
these  ridiculous  stories  are  hidden  profound  mysteries,  which 
cannot  be  explained  to  the  profane.  Describe  one  of  these. 
The  earth,  oppressed  by  the  weight  of  its  mountains,  was  on 
the  point  of  sinking  into  the  abyss  of  waters,  when  Vishnu,  in 
the  shape  of  a  tortoise,  supported  it  on  his  back  and  destroyed 
the  immense  height  of  the  mountains.  Give  another.  A  giant 
named  Paladas,  had  carried  the  earth  to  the  entrance  of  the 
mfernal  regions,  when  Vishnu,  under  the  form  of  a  hog,  van- 
quished the  giant,  and  replaced  the  earth  in  its  proper  position. 
The  seven  other  metamorphoses  are  equally  ridiculous  with 
these. 

Do  they  not  believe  that  Vishnu  wil  undergo  still  another  met- 
amorpliosis  ?  Yes,  he  will  then  take  the  form  of  a  white  horse 
with  wings.  This  Indian  Pegasus  will  only  walk  on  three  legs, 
carrying  the  other  suspended  in  the  air :  when  he  puts  this 
fourth  foot  to  the  gi'ound,  the  world  will  be  destroyed.     While 

27 


314  MYTHOLOGY. 

awaiting  this  last  transformation,  Vishnu  is  sleeping  tranquilly 
in  a  sea  of  milk,  resting  on  a  viper  with  five  heads. 

THE  DIVINITIES  OF  GAUL. 

Which  were  the  most  celebrated  of  these  ?  Those  whom  the 
Gauls  worshipped  with  peculiar  ceremonies,  were  Tentates, 
Hessus,  and  Taranes.  Who  was  the  principal  among  these  ? 
Tentates ;  in  him  they  worshipped  the  active  pruiciple  of  life.  His 
worship  was  celebrated  at  the  full  moon,  on  elevated  places 
and  in  deep  forests.  Under  what  forms  was  he  adored  ?  IJnder 
various  emblems  :  sometimes  as  an  oak,  portraying  strength ; 
and  sometimes  as  a  javelin,  the  emblem  of  victoiy.  They  sacri- 
ficed to  this  divinity,  dogs,  horses,  and  in  calamitous  times,  hu- 
man victims.  Who  was  Hessus  ?  He  was  looked  upon  among 
the  Gauls  as  the  god  of  battles  ;  he  is  represented  as  half  naked, 
and  armed  with  ar,  axe.  What  honors  were  paid  him  ?  They 
supposed  he  could  be  best  appeased  by  human  blood,  and  their 
barbarous  situation  often  went  to  the  length  of  sacrificing  to 
him  their  wives  and  children.  What  of  Taranes  ?  Although 
he  had  power  over  celestial  beings,  he  was  not  considered  as 
the  chief  among  the  gods ;  but  on  the  contrary,  only  the  third 
in  order.  To  him  also  they  sacrificed  human  victims.  Had  the 
Gauls  other  gods  ?  Yes,  they  had  many  whom  they  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks ;  such  as  Mercury,  Minerva,  Apollo,  etc., 
whom  they  worshipped  imder  different  names,  but  with  the 
same  attributes  as  the  Greeks.  It  is  not  difficult  to  recognise 
under  the  names  of  Hessus  and  Taranes,  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
What  god  did  they  beheve  themselves  to  have  descended  from  ? 
Pluto ;  and  from  this  belief  they  counted  time,  not  by  days, 
but  nights.  Did  they  not  revere  the  oak?  Yes;  after  their, 
divinities,  it  was  the  first  object  of  their  adoration.  It  served 
the  purpose  of  both  god  and  temple,  for  Tentates  was  worship- 
ped in  the  forests  of  oak.  The  mistletoe,  a  parasitical  plant, 
which  attaches  itself  to  the  oak,  was  held  sacred  by  them. 
Every  year  the  Druids,  or  priests,  went  with  great  solemnity  to 
gather  it ;  the  chief  Druid,  accompanied  by  all  the  people,  as- 
sembled beneath  the  tree,  when  the  Druid,  climbing  up  the 
branches,  cut  the  mistletoe  with  a  golden  hook,  which  was  dis- 
tributed on  the  "first  day  of  the  year''  as  a  precious  gift,  cry- 
ing "  Happy  new  yearJ"  What  were  the  functions  of  the  Dru- 
ids ?  They  were  not  only  the  ministers  of  religion,  but  exercised 
great  power  over  their  civil  affairs  as  well,  and  formed  a  large 
and  powerful  body,  almost  supreme  in  Gaul.     What  was  the 


MYTHOLOGY.  315 

eraployment  of  the  Druidesses  ?  They  were  the  wives  of  the 
Druids,  and  regulated  every  thing  relating  to  the  sacrifices  and 
other  ceremonies  of  religion.  They  also  had  the  reputation  of 
seeing  into  futurity,  and  were  consulted  as  prophetesses  whose 
oracles  were  infallible.  How  were  their  sacrifices  made  ?  Hu- 
man victims  were  enclosed,  while  still  living,  in  a  basket  of 
wicker-work  of  immense  size,  and  then  burnt.  What  is  under- 
stood by  a  sacred  field  ?  The  fields  where  these  religious  cere- 
monies took  place  were  held  sacred  ;  it  was  profane  to  culti- 
vate them.  To  prevent  their  being  tilled,  they  were  covered 
with  enormous  stones.  This  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  vast 
collections  of  enormous  stones  found  in  some  parts  of  France, 
particularly  near  Camac  in  Brittany.  The  same  worship  pre- 
vailed in  England  ;  the  collections  of  stones  on  the  plains  there 
are,  with  more  probability,  supposed  to  be  the  ruins  of  Druidi- 
cal  temples,  such  as  that  called  "  Stone  Henge,"  on  Sahsbury 
plain,  near  the  city  of  Sahsbury,  in  Wiltshire. 

SCANDINAVIAN  DEITIES. 

Who  was  Odin  ?  The  conqueror  and  legislator  of  the  North, 
the  most  celebrated  and  ancient  of  the  Scandinavian  deities  ;  a 
country  which  included  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  He 
was  called  the  "  Universal  Father,"  because  he  was  the  father 
of  their  gods,  as  Jupiter  was  of  the  Greeks.  He  was  also  call- 
ed Father  of  Battles,  because  he  adopted  as  his  sons  all  those 
who  fell  in  battle,  sword  in  hand  ;  for  this  reason  he  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Mars  of  the  Scandinavian  deities.  What  sacri- 
fices were  offered  to  him  ?  At  first  only  the  first-fruits  of  the 
earth,  afterwards  animals,  and  at  length  men ;  the  children  of 
kings,  and  sometimes  even  kings  themselves.  The  usual  method 
of  sacrificing  the  victims  was  to  lay  them  between  enormous 
stones,  where  they  were  crushed  to  death,  and  from  the  greater 
or  less  force  with  which  the  blood  poured  forth,  they  judged 
of  the  success  of  the  undertaking  which  was  the  object  of  the 
sacrifice.  Where  were  the  temples  dedicated  to  Odin  ?  He 
had  a  magnificent  temple  at  Upsal,  the  altar  of  which  was 
encircled  by  a  chain  of  gold ;  and  another  in  Iceland,  where 
the  assistants  were  watered  with  the  blood  of  the  victims. 
With  what  birds  is  he  represented  ?  Two  crows  are  repre- 
sented as  seated  on  his  shoulders,  who  whispered  in  his  ears  all 
that  they  saw  or  heard.  Odin  let  them  out  every  day,  and 
when  they  had  traversed  the  world  they  returned  at  the  hour  of 
the  evening  meal.     This  was  said  to  be  the  cause  of  his  univer 


316  MYTHOLOGY 

sal  knowledge,  and  from  this  lie  is  called  the  god  of  crows. 
What  opinion  did  the  northern  nations  entertain  of  the  infernal 
regions,  and  the  punishment  for  crimes  ?  As  the  Greeks,  and 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  countries,  formed  their  ideas 
of  punishment  from  the  sufferings  occasioned  by  heat,  and  rep- 
resented their  hell  as  abounding  in  flames  and  burning  lakes, 
the  natives  of  the  north  formed  their  opinion  of  eternal  punish- 
ment and  suffering  from  their  own  icebound  coast  and  frozen 
regions.  Their  punishment  consisted  in  being  exposed  to  the 
rigor  of  mountainous  waves,  which  fell  upon  the  wicked  in 
showers  of  hailstones  of  an  immense  size,  or  they  were  pressed 
to  death  between  mountains  of  ice.  What  should  we  learn  from 
this  ?  Not  to  form  our  ideas  of  punishment  hereafter  from  any 
such  models,  but  believe  that  our  God,  the  supreme  ruler  of 
the  universe,  who  has  in  His  hands  all  power  and  might,  who 
alone  is  supremely  just  as  well  as  good,  will  reward  and  pun- 
ish us  according  to  His  own  will,  and  in  "  ways  which  are  past 
finding  out ;"  and  that  by  the  merits  of  His  Son,  our  Lord  Je- 
sus Christ,  with  the  Di\ine  and  Holy  Spirit,  the  blessed  Trinity 
in  Unity  alone,  we  have  hope,  being  all  born  in  sin,  of  eternal 
happiness,  if  we  obey  his  precepts  and  walk  according  to  His 
laws,  as  laid  down  in  the  Holy  Scripture.  All  these  fables 
serve  to  show  us  what  reason  we  have  to  be  thankful  that  we 
live  in  an  age  when  these  monstrous  stories  are  known  to  bo 
false,  and  serve  l3ut  to  "  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale." 


AN  ABSTRACT 

OF 

THE  HEATHEN  MYTHOLOGY, 


J  upiTER,  the  supreme  deity  of  the  heathen  world. 

Juno,  wife  to  Jupiter,  and  queen  of  heaven. 

Apollo,  god  of  music,  poetry,  and  the  sciences. 

Minerva,  or  Pallas,  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and  goddess  of  wisdom. 

Mercury,  the  god  of  eloquence,  and  messenger  cf  the  gods. 

^olus,  god  of  the  winds. 


MYTHOLOGY.  317 

Bacchus,  god  of  wine. 
Mars,  god  of  war. 

Diana,  goddess  of  hunting,  chastity,  and  marriage, 
Esculapius,  god  of  physic. 
Venus,  goddess  of  beauty,  love,  and  marriage. 
Aurora,  goddess  of  the  morning. 
^Tupid,  son  of  Venus,  and  god  of  love. 
Saturn,  god  of  time. 
Astrsea,  goddess  of  justice. 
Autumnus,  god  of  fruits. 
Ate,  goddess  of  revenge. 
Bapta,  goddess  of  shame. 
Bellona,  goddess  of  war,  and  sister  to  Mars. 
Boreas,  god  of  the  north  wind. 
Agenoria,  goddess  of  industry. 
Angerona,  goddess  of  silence. 
Ceres,  goddess  of  agriculture. 
.^Collina,  goddess  of  hills. 

Comus,  god  of  laughter  and  mirth. 

Concordia,  goddess  of  peace, 

Cybele,  wife  of  the  god  Saturn,  and  mother  of  the  earth. 

Discordia,  the  goddess  of  contention. 

Eurymone,  an  infernal  deity,  who  gnawed  the  dead  to  the 

bones,  and  was  always  grinding  her  teeth. 
Fama,  or  Fame,  the  goddess  of  report. 
Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers. 

Fortune,  the  goddess  of  happiness  and  misery ;  said  to  be  blind. 
Harpocrates,  the  god  of  silence. 
Hebe,  goddess  of  youth. 
Historia,  goddess  of  history. 
Hygeia,  goddess  of  health. 
"Hymen,  god  of  marriage. 

Janus,  god  of  the  year ;  he  was  called  double-faced,  and  uaid 
■ — -  to  be  endowed  with  the  knowledge  of  the  past  and  the 

future. 
Lares,  household  gods  among  the  Romans ;   they  were  also 

called  Penates. 
Mnemosyne,  goddess  of  memoiy. 
Momus,  god  of  raillery. 
Mors,  goddess  of  death. 
Nox,  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  deities 
Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds. 
Pitho,  goddess  of  eloquence. 
Pluto,  god  of  hell. 

•      27* 


318  MYTHOLOGY. 

Proserpine,  -wife  to  Pluto,  and  queen  of  tlie  infernal  regions. 

jPlutus,  god  of  riches. 

Pomona,  goddess  of  fruits  and  autumn. 

Proteus,  a  sea-god,  said  to  have  the  power  of  changing  himself 
^     into  any  shape  he  pleased. 

Psyche,  goddess  of  pleasure. 

Sylvanus,  god  of  the  woods. 

Terminus,  god  of  boundaries. 

Neptune,  god  of  the  sea. 

Thetis,  goddess  of  the  sea. 

Vacuna,  goddess  of  idle  persons. 

Vertumnus,  god  of  the  spring. 

Vesta,  goddess  of  fire. 

Morpheus,  god  of  dreams. 

Somnus,  god  of  sleep. 

Tulcan,  god  of  subterraneous  fires,  and  husband  of  Venus, 
famed  for  his  deformity. 

Fates,  three  sisters,  intrusted  with  the  lives  of  mortals ;  their 
"    names  were  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos. 

Furies,  three  sisters,  armed  with  snakes  and  lighted  torches ; 
their  names  were  Alecto,  Megaera,  and  Tisiphone. 

Graces,  three  sisters,  daughters  of  Jupiter,  and  attendants  upon 
Venus  and  the  Muses ;  their  names  were  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and 
Euphrosyne. 

Gorgons,  three  hideous  women,  who  had  but  one  eye  in  the 
middle  of  their  foreheads;  their  names  were  Euryale,  Me- 
dusa, and  Sthenyo. 

KTuses,  the  nine  daughters  of  Jugiter  and  the  goddess  of 
memory ;  they  presided  over  the  sciences,  and  were  called 
Calliope,  Cho,  Erato,  Euterpe,  Melpomene,  Polyhymnia, 
Terpsichore,  Thaha,  and  Urania.  Calliope  was  the  muse  of 
eloquence  and  heroic  poetry.  Cho,  of  history.  Erato,  of 
amorous  poetry.  Euterpe,  of  music.  Melpomene,  of  tra- 
gedy. Polyhymnia,  of  rhetoric.  Terpsichore,  of  dancing. 
Thalia,  of  comedy  and  lyric  poetry.     And  Urania,  of  as- 

.Lronomy. 

Harpies,  three  monsters,  with  the  faces  of  women,  the  bodies  of 
vultures,  and  hands  armed  with  claws;  their  names  were 
Isis,  Aello,  and  Ocypete ;  and  Celoeno  was  their  queen. 

Hesperides,  three  sisters,  who  kept  golden  apples  in  a  garden, 
guarded  by  a  dragon ;  Hercules  slew  the  dragon,  and  carried 
oflF  the  apples.       . 

Acco,  an  old  woman,  remarkable  for  talking  to  herself  at  the 
glass,  and  refusing  what  she  most  wished  for, 

-V 


MYTHOLOGT.  319 

Acheron,  a  river  in  hell. 

Achilles,  a  Grecian,  who  signalized  himself  at  the  siege  of  Troy ; 
and  is  said  to  have  been  dipped  by  his  mother  in  the  river 
Styx,  which  rendered  him  invulnerable  in  every  part  except 
his  right  heel,  by  which  she  held  him. 

Actseon,  a  famous  hunter,  changed  by  Diana  into  a  stag,  for 
disturbing  her  while  bathing. 

Adonis,  a  youth  said  to  be  extremely  beautiful,  and  loeloved  by 
Venus. 

.Jilacus,  one  of  the  judges  of  hell. 

■^Rgis,  the  shield  of  Jupiter,  and  also  of  Minerva :  the  former 
was  covered  with  the  skin  df  the  goat  Amalthea ;  the  latter 
bore  on  it  the  head  of  the  gorgon,  (Medusa,)  which  Minerva 
had  cut  off  and  placed  there. 

AmbarvaHa,  sacrifices  in  honor  of  Ceres. 

Ambrosia,  the  food  of  the  gods. 

Acis,  a  Sicilian  shepherd,  extremely  beautiful. 

u^geria,  a  beautiful  nymph,  worshipped  by  the  Romans. 

Arachne,  a  woman  turned  into  a  spider,  for  contendmg  with 
Minerva  at  spinning. 

Argus,  a  man  said  to  have  a  hundred  eyes,  changed  by  Juno 

.^nto  a  peacock. 

Atalanta,  a  woman  remarkable  for  her  swift  running. 

Atlas,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  said  to  have  supported  the  heavens 
on  his  shoulders ;  afterwards  turned  into  a  mountain. 

Avernus,  a  lake  on  the  borders  of  hell. 

Biiareus,  a  giant,  said  to  have  had  fifty  heads,  and  one  hundred 
hands. 

Caduceus,  the  rod  which  Mercury  carried,  and  the  emblem  of 
peace ;  it  was  borne  by  the  Roman  heralds  when  they  went 
to  proclaim  peace.    .  . 

Castalides,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses. 

Centaurs,  creatures,  half  men,  half  horses,  said  to  have 
inhabited  Thessaly. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  two  brothers,  who  had  immortahty  conferred 
upon  them  alternately  by  Jupiter ;  they  make  that  constella- 
tion in  the  heavens  called  Gemini. 

Cerberus,  a  dog  with  three  heads,  that  kept  the  gates  of  hell. 

Charon,  the  ferryman  of  hell. 

Charites,  a  name  for  the  Graces. 

Chiron,  a  centaur,  who  taught  Esculapius  physic,  Hercules 
astronomy,  and  was  afterwards  made  the  constellaticn  Sagit- 
tarius. 

Circe,  a  famous  enchantress. 


320  MYTHOLOGY 

Cocytus,  a  river  in  hell,  flowing  from  tlie  river  Styx. 

Brumalia,  feasts  lield  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 

Cyclops,  the  workmen  of  Vulcan,  who  had  only  one  eye  in  th« 

middle  of  their  forehead. 
Delos,  the  island  where  Apollo  was  born,  and  had  a  celebrated 
..  oracle. 

Dryades,  nymphs  of  the  woods. 
Daphne,  a  beautiful  woman,  changed  into  the  laurel-tree  as  she 

fled  from  Apollo. 
Elysium,  the  paradise  of  the  heathens. 
Erebus,  a  river  in  hell,  famed  for  its  blackness. 
Ganymede,  a  beautiful  boy,  made  cup-bearer  to  Jupiter. 
Genii,  guardian  angels ;  there  were  good  and  evil. 
Gordius,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who  was  famed  for  fastening  a  knot 

of  cords,  on  which  the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so  intri- 
cate a  manner  that  Alexander  the  Great,  not  being  able  to 

untie  it,  cut  it  asunder. 
Gyges,  a  shepherd,  who  possessed  a  ring  which  rendered  him 

invisible,  when  he  turned  the  stone  towards  his  body. 
Hamadryades,  nymphs  said  to  have  lived  in  oak-trees. 
Hermes,  a  name  for  Mercury. 
Hecate,  Diana's  name  in  hell. 

Helicon,  a  famous  mountain  in  Bceotia,  sacred  to  Apollo  and 
.„^the  Muses. 
Hercules,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  famed  for  his  great  strength  and 

numerous  exploits. 
Hesperus,  or  Vesper,  the  poetical  name  for  the  evening  star. 
Hydra,  a  serpent  with  seven  heads,  killed  by  Hercules. . 
Ida,  a  famous  mountain  near  Troy. 
Ixlon,  a  man  who  killed  his  own  sister,  and  was  fastened  in  hell 

to  a  wheel  perpetually  turning  round. 
Iris,  the  messenger  of  J  uno,  changed  by  her  into  the  rainbow. 
Lamise,  a  name  for  the  Gorgons. 
Lethe,  a  river  in  hell,  whose  waters  had  the  power  of  causing 

forgetfulness.  ^ 
Lucifer,  the  poetical  name  for  the  morning  star. 
Latona,  a  nymph  loved  by  Jupiter;  she  was  the  mother  of 

Apollo  and  Diana. 
Medea,  a  famous  sorceress. 
Midas,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who  had  the  power  given  hun,  by 

Bacchus,  of  turning  whatever  he  touched  into  gold. 
Minos,  one  of  the  judges  of  hell,  famed  for  his  justice ;  he  waa 

king  of  Crete. 
Kereides,  sea-nymphs ;  there  were  fifty  of  them. 


MYTHOLOGY.  321 

Naiades,  nymphs  of  rivers  and  fountains. 

Niobe,  a  woman  said  to  have  wept  herself  into  a  statue,  for  the 
loss  of  her  fourteen  children. 

Nectar,  the  beverage  of  the  gods. 

Pactolus,  a  river  said  to  have  had  golden  sands, 
^^lympus,  a  famous  mountain  in  Thessaly,  the  resort  of  the 
gods. 

Orpheus,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope ;  his  musical  powers 
were  so  great  that  he  is  said  to  have  charmed  rocks,  trees, 
and  stones,  by  the  sound  of  his  lyre.  -^ 

Pandora,  a  woman  made  by  Vulcan,  endowed  with  gifts  by  all 
the  gods  and  goddesses ;  she  had  a  box  given  her  containing 
all  kinds  of  evils,  with  hope  at  the  bottom. 

Pegasus,  a  winged  horse,  belonging  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

Phaeton,  the  son  of  Apollo,  who  asked  the  guidance  of  his 
father's  chariot,  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent,  but  man- 
aged it  so  ill  that  he  set  the  world  on  fire. 
_Phlegethon,  a  boiling  river  in  hell. 

Prometheus,  a  man  who,  assisted  by  Minerva,  stole  fire  from 
heaven,  with  which  he  is  said  to  have  animated  a  figure 
formed  of  clay :  Jupiter,  as  a  punishment  for  his  audacity, 
condemned  him  to  be  chained  to  Mount  Caucasus,  with  a 
vulture  perpetually  gnawing  his  liver. 

Pigmies,  a  people  only  a  span  high,  born  in  Libya,  j^ 

Python,  a  serpent,  which  Apollo  killed ;  and,  in  memory  of  it, 
instituted  the  Pythian  games. 

Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  two  fond  lovers,  who  killed  themselves 
with  the  same  sword ;  and  turned  the  berries  of  the  mulberry- 
tree,  under  which  they  died,  from  white  to  brown. 

Pindus,  a  mountain  in  Thessaly,  sacred  to  the  Muses. 

Philemon  and  Baucis,  a  poor  old  man  and  woman,  who  enter- 
■^    tainpd  Jupiter  and  Mercury  in  their  travels  through  Phrygia. 

Polyphemus,  the  son  of  Neptune,  a  cruel  monster  whom  Ulys- 
ses destroyed. 

^.Badamanthus,  one  of  the  judges  of  hell. 

Saturnalia,  feasts  sacred  to  Saturn. 

Satyrs,  priests  of  Bacchus,  half  men,  half  goats. 

Stentor,  a  Grecian,  whose  voice  was  as  strong  and  loud  as  that 
of  fifty  men  together. 

Sirens,  sea-monsters,  who  charmed  people  with  the  sweetness 
of  their  music,  and  then  devoured  them. 

Sisyphus,  a  man  doomed  to  roll  a  large  stone  up  a  mountain  in 
hell,  which  continually  rolled  back,  as  a  punishment  for  hia 
pei-fidy  and  numerous  robberies. 


322  MYTHOLOGY. 

Styx,  a  liver  in  J/iell,  by  which  the  gods  swore ;  and  their  oathi 

*"  were  then  al\^ays  kept  sacred. 

Tempe,  a  beautiful  vale  in  Thessaly,  the  resort  of  the  gods. 

Tartarus,  the  abode  of  the  wicked  in  hell. 

Triton,  Neptune's  son,  and  his  trumpeter. 

Trophonius,  the  son  of  Apollo,  who  gave  oracles  in  a  gloomy 
cave. 

Tantalus,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  who,  serving  up  the  Hmbs  of  his 
son  Pelops  in  a  dish,  to  try  the  divinity  of  the  gods,  was 
plunged  up  to  the  chin  in  a  lake  of  hell,  and  doomed  to  per- 
petual thirst,  as  a  punishment  for  his  barbarity. 

Zephyrus,  the  poetical  name  for  the  west  wind. 


ELEMENTS  OF  ASTRONOMY. 

With  what  an  awful,  world-revolving  power, 

Were  first  the  unwieldy  planets  launched  along 

The  illimitable  void  !  thus  to  remain 

Amid  the  flux  of  many  thousand  years, 

That  oft  has  swept  the  toihng  race  of  men 

And  all  their  labored  monuments  away. 

Firm,  unremitting,  matchless  in  their  course. 

To  the  kind  tempered  change  of  night  Eind  day, 

And  of  the  seasons  ever  stealing  round 

Minutely  faithful.    Such  th'  all  perfect  Hand 

That  poised,  impels,  and  rules  the  steady  whole.— Thomson. 

What  is  meant  by  the  heavenly  bodies  ?  The  sun,  stars, 
planets,  and  comets.  What  is  the  Solar  System?  The  motion 
of  the  primary  and  secondary  planets  and  comets  round  the 
sun,  which  is  stationary,  and  which  they  all  appear  to  respect. 
What  is  the  sun  supposed  to  be  ?  An  immense  luminous  body, 
which  has  the  power  of  communicating  light  and  heat  to  our  uni- 
verse :  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  so  great,  that 
its  light  is  said  to  be  eight  minutes  in  reaching  us.  How  is  it 
known  that  he  revolves  on  an  axis  ?  From  certain  spots  ob- 
served in  his  disk.  What  are  the  fixed  stars  ?  They  are  sup- 
posed, by  astronomers,  to  be  suns,  like  our  own ;  each  of  them 
surrounded  by  a  complete  system  of  planets  and  comets  :  their 
distance  from  the  earth  being  very  great  is  the  reason  they  ap- 
p  lar  so  small. 


ELEMENTS    OF    ASTRONOMY.  323 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  planets  and  fixed  stars  ? 
The  planets  are  always  moving  in  circular  orbits,  and  have  no 
light  of  their  own,  but  receive  it  from  our  sun ;  the  stars,  on 
the  contrary,  appear  constantly  in  the  same  position,  and  shine 
by  their  own  light.  How  have  astronomers  divided  the  plan- 
ets? Into  two  classes:  the  first  comprehends  the  primary 
planets,  viz..  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Ceres,  Pallas, 
Juno,  Vesta,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the  Georgium  Sidus.  The 
second  class  includes  the  satellites  which  revolve  round  some 
of  the  primary,  such  as  the  moon,  attendant  upon  our  earth; 
the  four  moons  or  satellites  that  revolve  round  Jupiter  ;  the 
seven  satellites  of  Saturn,  and  the  six  that  encircle  the  Geor- 
gium Sidus  :  all  these  planets  are  supposed  to  be  inhabited, 
and  we  know  that  one  is  so :  Jupiter  is  the  largest.  In  what 
order  do  the  planets  move  round  our  sun  ?  Mercury  nioves  in 
the  first  and  least  circle,  Venus  in  the  next ;  these  two  are 
called  inferior  planets  ;  then  follows  the  earth,  with  its  attend- 
ant the  moon ;  next  Mars ;  then  the  newly  discovered  planets 
Piazzi  or  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta:  afterwards  Jupiter, 
who  has  four  moons  moving  round  him ;  Saturn  is  next,  who 
has  seven  moons,  and  is  surrounded  also  by  a  thin  broad  ring 
of  light:  lastly,  in  the  largest  circle,  moves  that  planet  called 
the  Georgium  Sidus,  which  has  six  moons  ;  these  last  are  called 
superior  planets,  because  they  do  not  move  within  the  earth's 
orbit :  the  color  of  Mercury  is  a  sparkling  red  ;  of  Venus,  a  yel- 
lowish white  ;  of  Mars,  a  fiery  red ;  of  Jupiter,  splendid  white ; 
of  Saturn,  dim  red. 

What  is  remarkable  of  Jupiter  ?  Added  to  his  four  moons, 
he  has  faint  light  substances,  called  his  belts,  which,  from  the 
frequent  changes  observed  in  them,  have  been  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  only  clouds.  What  is  remarkable  of  Venus  ?  When 
west  of  the  sun  she  rises  before  him,  and  is  called  the  morning 
star ;  when  east  of  the  sun  she  rises  after  he  is  set,  and  is  then 
called  the  evening  star;  this  appearance  continues  for  290  days 
alternately.  What  time  do  the  planets  take  in  moving  round 
the  sun?  Mercury  in  82  days,  at  the  distance  of  37  milHons 
of  miles ;  Venus  in  224  days,  at  the  distance  of  68  millions  of 
miles ;  Mars  in  687  days,  at  a  mean  distance  of  144  millions  of 
miles;  Jupiter  in  less  than  12  years,  at  the  distance  of  493 
millions  of  miles ;  Saturn  is  nearly  80  years  in  making  his  revo- 
lution ;  and  the  Georgium  Sidus  more  than  eighty  years ;  this 
planet  is  also  called  Uranus :  Piazzi,  or  Ceres,  in  4  years  7 
months  and  10  days,  at  a  mean  distance  of  260  millions  of 
miles :  Pallas  in  a  period  a  little  greater  than  the  year  of  Ceres, 


324  ELEMENTS    OF    ASTRONOMY. 

at  a  mean  distance  of  266  millions  of  miles ;  Juno  in  less  than 
Pallas  or  Ceres,  and  250  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun.  Yesta 
is  similar  in  appearance  to  the  Georgium  Sidus,  and  is  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  in  clear  weather.  ^ 

How  may  you  easily  know  the  &xed  stars  ?  They  are  less 
bright,  and  always  appear  to  be  twinkling.  What  number  of 
fixed  stars  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye  ?  About  a  thousand ; 
there  have  been  three  thousand  fixed  stars  discovered  by  the 
assistance  of  good  telescopes,  and  there  are  probably  many 
more.  How  are  these  fixed  stars  divided  by  astronomers? 
Into  eighty  constellations,  or  clusters  of  stars,  under  the  names 
and  figures  of  various  personages  celebrated  in  antiquity,  and 
of  fabulous  animals  and  inanimate  bodies ;  they  are  almost  all 
placed  in  one  or  other  of  these,  and  the  few  stars  which  could 
not  conveniently  be  brought  into  any  of  them  are  called  un- 
fonned.  Have  all  these  stars  names  ?  No ;  only  some  of  the 
most  remarkable :  and  those  which  have  not  any  name  are  dis- 
tinguished upon  the  globe  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
a  standing  for  the  largest  star,  ^  for  the  second,  y  for  the  thu'd, 
and  so  on,  according  to  their  magnitude.  What  is  meant  by 
Galaxy,  or  Milky- way  ?  It  is  a  white  track  round  the  heavens, 
caused  by  an  infinity  of  small  stars,  which  may  be  seen  with  a 
telescope. 

What  are  Comets  ?  Luminous  and  opaque  bodies,  whose 
motions  are  in  different  directions,  and  the  orbits  they  describe 
very  extensive ;  they  have  long  translucent  tails  of  light  turned 
from  the  sun :  the  great  swiftness  of  their  motion  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  sun,  is  the  reason  they  appear  to  us  for  such  a 
short  time :  and  the  great  length  of  time  they  are  in  appearing 
again  is  occasioned  by  the  extent  and  eccentricity  of  their  or- 
bits or  paths  in  the  heavens.  How  many  comets  are  supposed 
to  belong  to  our  solar  system?  Twenty-one;  but  we  only 
know  when  to  expect  the  retuni  of  three ;  the  first  appears 
every  Voth  year,  the  second  every  129th  year,  and  the  third 
every  5 7 5th  year;  this  last  will  appear  again  in  the  year 
2225 :  its  rapidity  is  so  great,  that  it  has  been  calculated  to  fly 
at  the  rate  of  fourteen  thousand  miles  in  a  minute.  ^-What  is 
the  cause  of  Eclipses  ?  As  every  planet  and  satellite  in  the 
solar  system  derives  its  light  from  our  sun,  it  follows  that  it  will 
cast  a  shadow,  or  interrupt  the  sun's  rays,  when  it  comes  di- 
rectly opposite  to  it.  How  is  the  sun  said  to  be  eclipsed  ?  It  is 
80  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  earth  when  its  light  is  intercepted 
by  the  moon  coming  directly  between  the  sun  and  the  earth ; 
this  can  only  happen  at  the  time  of  new  moon,  because  then 


EXPLANATION    OF  325 

the  sun  and  moon  have  not  the  earth  between  them.  How  is 
an  echpse  of  the  moon  caused  ?  The  earth  then  comes  be- 
tween the  moon  and  the  sun,  and  casts  its  shadow  upon  the 
moon,  which  obstructs  the  hght ;  this  can  only  take  place  when 
the  moon  is  at  full.  How  many  kinds  of  eclipses  are  there,  and 
how  are  they  distinguished  ?  Total,  when  the  whole  body  is 
obscured  ;  partial,  when  some  part  only  is  concealed. 


EXPLANATION 


A  FEW  ASTRONOMICAL  WORDS. 

APOGEE.  Spoken  generally  of  the  moon,  which  is  said 
to  be  in  her  Apogee,  when  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
earth. 

Aphelion  or  Aphelium.  That  part  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  which 
it  is  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  sun.  See  Perihelion  and 
Perigee. 

Apsis  of  an  orbit  is  either  its  apogee  or  perigee,  its  aphelion 
or  perihelion. 

Appulse.  The  approach  of  the  moon  to  the  fixed  stars. 

Acronical  Stars.  Those  which  rise  when  the  sun  sets,  and 
set  when  the  sun  rises. 

Astrolabe.  An  instrument  formerly  used  to  take  the  distances 
of  the  sun  and  stars. 

Austral.  Southern. 

Centrifugal  force.  That  which  impels  any  body  to  fly  off 
from  the  centre. 

Centripetal  force.  That  which  has  a  tendency  to  the  centre. 

Cusp.  The  horns  of  the  moon. 

Culminate.  A  star  is  said  to  culminate  when  it  appears  in  the 
meridian. 

Cosmical.  Rising  or  setting  with  the  sun. 

Conjunction.  There  may  be  a  conjunction  of  the  sun  and  a 
planet,  or  of  the  planets  with  each  other.  When  any  two  ojr 
more  planets  are  in  the  same  part  of  the  Zodiac,  they  are  said 
to  be  in  conjunction  with  each  other ;  a  planet  is  in  conjunctioD 

28 


326  ASTRONOMICAL    WORDS. 

with  the  sun,  -when  it  comes  between  the  sun  and  the  earth 
this  is  termed  an  inferior  conjunction  ;  if  the  sun  is  between  the 
planet  and  the  earth,  it  is  called  a  superior  conjunction. 

Cycle  of  the  Sun.  A  revolution  of  twenty-eight  years,  which 
being  elapsed,  the  Sunday  letters  in  the  calendar  return  to  their 
former  places,  and  proceed  in  the  same  order  as  before. 

Cycle  of  the  Moon.  A  period  of  nineteen  years.  Upon  its 
completion,  the  new  and  full  moons  return  on  the  same  day  of 
the  month,  though  not  at  the  same  hour. 

Declination.^  The  distance  of  a  star  from  the  equator,  whether 
north  or  south*. 

Disk  or  Disc.  The  face  of  the  sun  or  moon,  as  they  a^ppear 
to  us  upon  the  earth. 

Digit.  One  twelfth  part  of  the  sun  or  moon's  surface :  in  a 
total  eclipse  of  these  luminaries  the  whole  disk  is  obscured ;  in 
a  partial  echpse  only  one,  or  more  parts,  called  digits. 

Emersion.  When  the  sun,  moon,  or  star  begins  to  appear  af- 
ter an  echpse. 

Epact.  The  eleven  days  which  the  solar  year  contains  more 
than  the  lunar  one. 

Elongation.  The  greatest  distance  at  which  any  inferior  planet 
is  seen  from  the  sun. 

Geocentric  Place.  The  appearance  of  a  planet  as  seen  from 
the  earth. 

Heliocentric  Motion.  The  motion  which  a  planet  would  ap- 
pear to  have  if  seen  from  the  sun. 

Halo.  A  circle  which  sometimes  surrounds  the  moon.  _ 

Horizon.  The  rational  horizon  is  that  circle  which  is  imagined 
to  encompass  the  earth,  exactly  in  the  middle. 

Sensible  or  Apparent  Horizon.  That  circle  of  the  sky  which 
bounds  our  sight,  by  seeming  to  touch  the  ground. 

Horn.  The  extremity  cf  the  decreasing  or  increasing  moon. 

Hemi-Cycle.  Half  of  the  sun  or  moon's  cycle. 

Intercalary  day.  That  day  which  is  added  to  the  month  of 
February  every  leap-year. 

Immersion.  When  one  of  the  planets  comes  withia  the  shadow 
of  another,  as  in  an  echpse. 

Limb  of  a  Planet.  The  utmost  border  of  the  sun  or  moon's 
disk. 

Mazzaroth.  The  Zodiac :  this  is  a  Hebrew  term. 

Lunar  Month.  The  space  of  twenty-nine  days,  twelve  hours, 
and  forty-four  minutes,  in  which  time  the  moon  completes  her 
daily  rotation  on  her  axis. 

Solar  Month.  The  time  in  which  the  sun  seems  to  pass  through 


EXILANATION,    ETC.  32*7 

one  sign  of  the  Zodiac,  being  thirty  days,  ten  hours,  and  a 
half. 

Synodical  Month.  The  interval  of  time  from  one  conjunction 
of  the  sun  and  moon  to  another 

Occultation  of  a  Planet.  The  time  in  which  it  is  hidden  from 
our  view  by  an  eclipse. 

The  Nodes  are  the  points  where  the  orbits  of  the  primary 
planets  cut  the  ecliptic,  and  where  the  orbits  of  the  secondary 
cut  those  of  their  primary.  When  the  planet  is  passing  north- 
ward it  is  called  the  ascending  node,  when  southward  the  de- 
scending. 

Opposition.  When  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  any  of 
the  planets,  that  planet  so  situated  is  said  to  be  in  opposition 
to  the  sun ;  and  planets  are  said  to  be  in  opposition  to  each 
other  when  in  opposite  parts  of  the  Zodiac,  or  when  the  differ- 
ence of  their  longitudes  is  180  degrees. 

Occidental  Planet.  One  that  sets  after  the  sun. 

Oblate.  Flattened  at  the  poles. 

Parallax.  The  difference  between  the  true  and  apparent 
place  of  a  planet. 

Phases  of  the  Moon.  Its  different  appearances  according  to  the 
quarter  it  is  in. 

Perihelion.  That  part  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  which  it  is  near- 
est the  sun. 

Perigee.  That  part  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  which  it  is  nearest 
the  earth. 

Parhelium.  A  mock  sun,  caused  by  a  reflection  of  the  true 
sun  in  a  cloud. 

Penumbra.  A  faint  shadow  which,  in  an  eclipse,  is  observed 
between  the  full  light  and  the  perfect  shadow. 

Qudrature.  The  first  and  last  quarters  of  the  moon. 

Quartile  of  th£  Planets.  An  aspect  of  the  planets  when  they 
are  ninety  degrees  (or  three  signs  of  the  Zodiac)  distant  from 
each  other. 

Revolution  of  a  Planet.  ■  The  time  it  takes  to  complete  its 
course  round  the  sun. 

Rotation  of  a  Planet  on  its  axis.  Its  turning  round  like  a 
wheel,  at  the  same  time  that  it  moves  forward  in  its  orbit. 

Sex  tile  of  the  Planets.  The  distance  of  sixty  degrees  (or  two 
signs)  between  two  planets. 

Semi-Sextile.  The  distance  of  thirty  degrees,  (or  one  sign.) 

Semi-  Quadrate.  The  distance  of  forty-five  degrees  between 
the  planets. 

Transit  of  a  Planet, — is  when,  in  a  conjunction  either  of 


S28  CONSTELLATIONS. 

Mercury  or  Venus  with  the  sun,  the  planet  in  conjunction 
crosses  any  considerable  part  of  the  sun's  face,  appearing  on  its 
suiface  like  a  dark  round  spot. 

Trine.   An  aspect  of  the  planets,  when  one  hundred  and 
twenty  degrees,  or  four  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  asunder. 


NORTHERN   CONSTELLATIONS. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  ENGLISH  NAMES. 

Ursa  Major,  or  Helice The  Great  Bear. 

Ursa  Minor The  Lesser  Bear. 

Draco. The  Dragon. 

Cepheus [Chara) 

Canes  Venatici  (Asterion  and     The  Hounds. 

Bootes 

Mons  Maenalus 

Coma  Berenices Berenice's  Hair. 

Cor  CaroH Charles's  Heart. 

Corona  Borealis The  Northern  Crown. 

Hercules,  or  Engonasi 

Cerberus 

Lyra,  or  Vultur  Cadens The  Lyre. 

Cygnus The  Swan. 

Vulpecula The  Fox. 

Anser The  Goose. 

Lacerta  Stellio The  Lizard. 

Cassiopeia 

Camelopardalus The  Camelopard. 

Serpens,  or  Ophiuch The  Serpent. 

Serpentarius,  or  Ophiuchus  . 

Scutum  Sobieski Sobieski's  Shield. 

Aquila,  or  Vultur  Volans The  Eagle. 

Antinous,  or  Ganymedes 

Delphinus The  Dolphin. 

Equulus The  Little  Horse, 

Sagitta The  Arrow. 

Andromeda 

Perseus 

Pegasus 

Auriga The  Charioteer. 

Lynx 


CONSTELLATIONS.  .TJS 

CONSTELLATIONS.  ENGLISH  NAMES. 

Leo  Minor The  Lesser  Lion. 

Triangulum The  Triangle. 

Triangulum  Minus The  Little  Triangle. 

Musca The  Fly. 

CONSTELLATIONS   IN    THE   ZODIAC. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  ENGLISH  NAMES.          NO.  OF  STARS 

Aries The  Ram 46 

Taurus The  Bull 109 

Gemini The  Twins 94 

Cancer The  Crab 95 

Leo The  Lion. 91 

Virgo The  Virgin 93 

Libra The  Balance 9 

Scorpio The  Scorpion 94 

Sagittarius The  Archer 48 

Capricornus The  Goat 58 

Aquarius The  Water-Bearer. ...    93 

Pisces The  Fishes 100 

The  first  six  are  called  the  Northern  signs,  and  the  l^st  six  the  Southern. 

SOUTHERN    CONSTELLATIONS. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  ENGLISH  NAMES. 

Cetus The  Whale. 

Eridanus 

Phoenix 

Toucan 

Orion 

Monoceros The  Unicorn. 

Canis  Minor The  Lesser  Dog. 

Apus The  Bird  of  Paradise. 

Hydra 

Sextans  Uraniae The  Sextant  of  Urania. 

Crater The  Cup. 

Corvus The  Raven. 

Centaurus The  Centaur. 

JLupus The  Wolf. 

Ara The  Altar. 

Triangulum  Australe The  Southern  Triangle. 

Pavo The  Peacock. 

Corona  Australia The  Southern  Crown. 

Grus The  Crane. 

28* 


330  QUESTIONS  ON  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  ENGLISH  NAMES. 

Piscis  Australis The  Southern  Fish. 

Lepus The  Hare. 

Columba  Noachi Noah's  Dove. 

Robur  Caroli Charles's  Oak. 

Crux The  Cross,  sometimes  Crosk;nk 

Argo  Navis The  Ship  Argo. 

Canis  Major The  Greater  Dog. 

Apis The  Bee. 

Hirundo The  Swallow. 

Indus The  Indian. 

Cameleon 

Piscis  Volans The  Flj  ing  Fish. 

Xiphias The  Sword  Fish. 


QUESTIONS 


COMMON  SUBJECTS 


What  is  Mineralogy  ?  A  science  which  treats  of  the  solid 
and  hard  component  parts  of  the  earth ;  it  assists  in  the  dis- 
covering of  mines,  and  forming  a  judgment  of  their  various 
properties.  Which  are  the  principal  metals  ?  Gold,  silver, 
platina,  quicksilver,  (or  mercury,)  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  tin : 
of  these,  gold  is  the  heaviest;  tin  the  lightest;  and  iron  the 
most  useful.  Whence  have  we  Gold?  Chiefly  from  New 
Mexico,  in  North  America ;  some  parts  of  South  America ;  and 
many  places  in  the  East  Indies :  gold  was  found  in  the  county 
of  Wicklow,  in  Ireland.  Where  is  Silver  found  ?  Chiefly  in 
the  mines  of  Potosi,  in  South  America ;  but  there  are  some 
good  mines  in  Norway  and  Sweden :  it  is  combined  with  lead 
in  most  lead-mines,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Whence  have 
we  Platina?  Platina,  or  platinum,  is  found  only  in  South 
America :  when  pure,  it  resembles  silver,  though  not  so  bright ; 
its  beauty,  ductility,  and  indestructibility,  make  it  little  mferior 
to  gold   and   silver:    neither  air  nor  water  can  act  upon  it. 


aUESTIONS   ON  331 

Where  is  Copper  dug  ?  The  best  and  purest  comes  from  the 
Swedish  mines ;  that  worked  upon  Parry's  Mountain,  in  the 
Isle  of  Anglesea,  is  said  to  be  the  largest  yet  discovered :  ex- 
tensive copper-mines  are  worked  in  the  southwest  of  Ireland, 
and  in  the  county  of  Cornwall ;  also  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States,  particularly  in  the  upper  part  of  the  state  of 
Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Superior.  There  are  three  kinds  of  copper, 
the  common,  rose  copper,  and  virgin  copper;  copper  also, 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  tin,  makes  what  we  call  bell 
metal ;  with  a  smaller  proportion,  bronze  for  statues,  etc. ;  and 
when  mixed  with  zinc,  pinchbeck. 

Whence  have  we  Iron  ?  It  is  found  in  most  European  coun- 
tries, and  the  United  States :  the  best  iron-mines  in  England  are 
those  of  Colebrook  Dale,  in  Shropshire ;  and  those  in  the  forest 
of  Dean,  Gloucestershire.  Whence  have  we  Lead  ?  It  abounds 
in  England,  and  the  United  States ;  the  best  mines  are  in  Corn- 
wall, Devonshire,  Derbyshire,  Northumberland,  Durham,  iu 
England,  and  various  parts  of  North  Wales ;  Ireland  is  particu- 
larly rich  in  lead-mines :  Cumberland  has  a  mine  of  the  best 
black  lead  for  pencOs.  The  best  mines  in  the  United  States  are 
those  at  Galena,  in  IlHnois,  one  of  the  western  states, 

What  is  Pewter  ?  A  composition  made  of  brass,  lead,  and 
tin,  mixed  in  different  quantities.  What  is  Brass  ?  A  com- 
pound metal,  made  of  copper  and  the  calamine  stone,  which 
renders  it  yellow  and  hard.  Which  are  the  perfect  metals  ? 
Gold  and  silver ;  so  called  because  they  lose  nothing  from  the 
heat  of  the  fire.  What  is  an  imperfect  metal  ?  One  which  de- 
creases by  the  heat  of  the  fire,  and  can  be  easily  dissolved  or 
corroded  by  acids.  Which  are  the  different  kinds  of  Iron? 
Forged  iron,  cast  iron,  and  steel.  What  is  forging  iron  ?  Beat- 
ing it  with  hammers,  when  red-hot,  till  it  becomes  softer  and 
more  flexible.  How  is  Steel  made  ?  By  heating  bars  of  iron 
with  charcoal  ashes  and  bone  shavings ;  by  this  method  the 
iron  becomes  harder  and  closer  grained,  and  is  also  capable  of 
bearing  a  very  high  polish.  What  is  Quicksilver  ?  An  imper- 
fect metal,  resembling  melted  silver,  found  in  Hungary,  Italy, 
Spain,  and  South  America :  it  is  of  great  use  in  manufactures 
and  medicine.  What  is  White-Lead  V  Common  lead  corroded 
by  the  steam  of  vinegai  :  this  is  used  by  house-painters,  to 
thicken  and  dry  their  paints ;  and  it  makes  the  smell  of  a  new- 
painted  house  extremely  prejudicial,  white-lead  being  a  slow 
poison. 

Whence  comes  the  Loadstone  ?  It  is  found  in  iron-mines,  in 
Germany,   Hungary,   England,    Arabia,   Bengal,    and    China. 


332  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

What  are  its  properties  ?  It  attracts  iron,  wliich,  when  rabbed 
with  the  loadstone,  is  capable  of  attracting  any  other  piece  of 
iron  placed  near  it :  every  magnet  or  loadstone  has  two  poles, 
one  pointing  south,  the  other  north  ;  and  this  circumstance  has 
caused  its  great  use  in  navigation.  Where  are  Diamonds  found  ? 
The  best  are  in  the  mines  of  Golconda,  part  of  the  Mogul's  em- 
pire. Whence  have  we  the  best  Pearls  ?  From  the  pearl-fish- 
ery, at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf :  divers  are  employed, 
in  March,  April,  August,  and  September,  to  take  the  pearls  from 
the  inside  of  the  oysters  which  adhere  to  the  rocks  :  this  is  done 
by  putting  the  oysters  into  pits,  and  throwing  heaps  of  sand 
over  them :  not  being  in  their  own  element,  they  soon  open  and 
are  killed  ;  the  flesh  then  corrupts  or  dries,  and  upon  searching 
the  pits,  the  pearls  are  found  at  the  bottom.  How  are  they 
disposed  of?  When  properly  dried  and  cleaned,  the  sand  is 
sifted,  to  collect  all  they  can ;  the  smallest  are  sold  as  seed 
pearls,  the  largest  sometimes  adorn  the  diadems  of  sovereign 
princes. 

Whence  have  we  the  best  Ohves  ?  From  Italy,  Portugal,  and 
the  southern  parts  of  France :  the  oil  of  olives  is  esteemed  the 
best  and  the  sweetest. 

What  is  Common  or  Train  Oil  ?  The  fat  of  whales.  Where 
is  Rice  principally  grown  ?  In  Egypt,  China,  and  the  East  In- 
dies ;  the  natives  of  these  countries  make  it  their  chief  food : 
also  in  the  United  States,  particularly  South  Carohna.  Whence 
have  we  Tea  ?  From  China ;  it  is  the  well-known  leaf  of  a  tree 
growing  in  great  abundance  there,  and  was  introduced  into 
England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  What  is  Coffee  ?  The 
berry  of  a  tree,  the  leaves  of  which  resemble  the  laurel ;  it  is 
cultivated  in  Arabia,  Turkey,  and  the  West  Indies :  the  Turks 
are  passionately  fond  of  this  liquor.  What  is  Chocolate  ?  A 
composition  made  from  the  cacao-tree :  its  fruit  grows  as  a  ker- 
nel, twenty  or  thirty  of  them  being  enclosed  in  a  rind,  which  re- 
sembles a  cucumber  in  shape.  These  nuts  are  beaten  into  a 
paste,  with  cinnamon,  and  other  aromatic  spices,  and  then  made 
up  into  little  cakes  called  chocolate.  Whence  are  Cocoa-Nuts 
procured  ?  Large  forests  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree  grow  in  India, 
America,  and  most  of  the  Oriental  Islands :  its  branches,  resem- 
bhng  those  of  large  palm-trees,  form  a  covering  for  the  Indian 
huts :  sails  and  cordage  are  made  from  the  bark :  the  nut  affords 
oil,  a  kind  of  milk,  and  a  delicious  fruit ;  and  from  the  shell, 
spoons,  cups,  and  bowls  are  made.  How  is  the  best  Ink  made  ? 
With  gall-nuts,  copperas,  and  gum  Arabic.  Whence  have  we 
India-Ink  ?     From  China,  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies : 


QUESTIONS  ON  333 

it  is  made  of  fine  lampblack,  and  animal  glue ;  but  the  secret 
of  mixing  these  ingredients  properly  is  unknown  to  the  Euro- 
peans. An  ink  little  inferior  to  this  may  be  made  of  ivory 
black  and  charcoal  black,  ground  down  to  the  fineness  required. 

What  is  Rhubarb  ?  The  root  of  a  tree  growing  in  Turkey  in 
Asia,  and  Arabia  Felix ;  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  What  is 
Ipecacuanha  ?  The  root  of  a  tree  found  only  in  Brazil,  used 
also  medicinally.  What  is  Peruvian  Bark?  This  valuable 
medicine  is  the  bark  of  the  quinquinna-tree,  growing  only  in 
Peru ;  it  was  discovered  by  the  Jesuits,  whence  it  is  frequently 
called  Jesuit's  bark.  What  is  Manna  ?  A  gum  which  flows 
from  the  ash-tree,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Sicily ;  the  most  fa- 
mous is  that  of  Arabia,  which  is  a  kind  of  condensed  honey  that 
exudes  from  the  leaves  of  trees,  which  may  be  gathered  when 
it  has  become  concreted.  What  are  Cantharides?  Spanish 
flies,  used  for  raising  blisters.  What  is  Camphire  ?  A  kind  of 
white  gum ;  brought  from  the  Turkeys  and  Arabia.  What  is 
Opium  ?  A  narcotic  juice,  extracted  from  the  white  poppy, 
thickened  and  made  up  into  cakes  ;  it  is  brought  chiefly  from 
Turkey,  Egypt,  and  the  Indies :  and  is  useful  both  in  medicine 
and  surgery.  What  is  Castor  Oil  ?  It  is  extracted  from  a  tree, 
called  by  the  Americans  palma-christi,  growing  in  the  West  In- 
dies, and  the  southern  States ;  this  oil  is  very  strong,  and  valu- 
able in  medicinal  cases. 

What  is  Fuller's  Earth  ?  An  unctuous  kind  of  marl ;  of  great 
use  in  cleansing  and  preparing  wool :  it  abounds  chiefly  in  Bed- 
fordshire, Worcestershire,  and  Shropshire.  What  is  Logwood  ? 
A  plant,  which  is  originally  a  native  of  Honduras  in  America, 
and  many  parts  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies :  it  is  of  essential 
service  in  manufactures,  as  it  dyes  the  best  black  and  purple. 
Whence  have  we  Ginger  ?  Both  from  the  East  and  West  Indies  ; 
it  is  a  root  which  requires  no  cultivation,  and  its  warm,  pungent 
qualities  make  it  particularly  valuable.  What  is  Millet  ?  A 
grain  used  for  puddings,  which  grows  naturally  in  India ;  but  is 
cultivated  in  Europe,  very  successfully.  !  Whence  have  we  Pep- 
per? Chiefly  from  the  isles  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  the  coast 
of  Malabar ;  it  grows  upon  a  shrub,  and  the  difference  between 
the  black  and  the  white  pepper  is  caused  by  stripping  off  the 
outward  bark  of  the  black  pepper,  both  kinds  growing  on  the 
Bame  shrub. 

What  are  Sponges  ?  Marine  substances,  which  are  found 
sticking  to  rocks  and  shells,  when  covered  by  the  sea- water  i 
they  are  supposed  to  be  the  habitation  of  some  animal,  and  are 
brought  chiefly  from  Constantinople,  the  states  of  Barbary,  and 


334  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

some  of  the  isles  in  the  Archipelago.  Sponges  are  used  both 
in  the  arts  and  surgical  operations.  Wkere  does  the  Tamarind 
Tree  grow  ?  In  both  the  Indies :  tamarinds  are  used  by  the 
Asiatics  as  a  sweetmeat;  by  the  Europeans  as  a  medicine. 
What  is  Parchment?  The  skins  of  sheep  or  goats  :  vellum  ia 
made  from  the  skins  of  young  calves  ;  the  manufacture  of  these 
useful  articles  has  been  brought  to  great  perfection  by  the 
French.  Whence  have  we  the  best  Capers  ?  From  the  envi- 
rons of  Toulon  and  Lyons ;  they  grow  upon  a  small  shrub 
without  any  cultivation,  and  are  generally  found  to  flourish 
most  near  ruined  walls  and  edifices,  or  in  the  cavities  of  rocks. 
They  are  pickled,  and  then  expo/ted. 

What  is  Gum  Arabic  ?  A  gum  which  flows  from  the  acacia, 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia :  there  are  other  kinds  of  gum,  but  inferior 
to  this  in  quality.  What  is  Cinnabar?  A  red  mineral  sub- 
stance, found  in  the  isle  of  Borneo.  Whence  have  we  the  best 
Saffron  ?  From  Essex :  this  plant  is  used  both  in  food  and 
medicine.  Where  are  Hops  chiefly  cultivated  ?  In  Essex, 
Kent,  Worcestershire,  and  Herefordshire :  they  produce  a  flower 
which  strengthens  beer :  they  flourish  most  in  rich  soil,  and 
grow  to  a  great  height,  twining  around  long  poles.  What  is 
Malt  ?  Malt  is  made  of  barley,  steeped  in  water  and  fermented  ; 
afterwards  dried  in  a  kiln.  Pearl  barley  is  merely  barley  freed 
from  the  shell  or  husk.  /  What  is  Indigo  ?  A  plant  produced 
in  the  warm  regions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America  :  the  blue  ex- 
tracted from  it  is  used  by  painters  in  mixing  their  colors,  and 
by  dyers.  /  What  is  Flax  ?  A  beautiful  plant,  cultivated  only 
in  rich  ground,  with  slender  stalks,  small  leaves,  and  blue  blos- 
soms ;  it  is  sown  in  April,  and  is  valuable  for  its  seed,  called 
linseed,  (from  which  excellent  oil  is  made,)  and  for  the  fibres  of 
its  stalks,  which  are  manufactured  into  linen,  i  What  is  Hemp  ? 
A  useful  plant,  resembling  the  common  nettle ;  it  is  sown  in 
April,  and,  like  flax,  will  flourish  best  in  rich  ground  :  the  out- 
ward covering  or  peeling  of  the  stalk  is  the  part  made  into  cloth 
and  cordage.  |  What  is  Tow  ?  The  refuse  of  hemp,  after  it  has 
been  dressed :  this  thick  gross  part,  when  separated  from  the 
stem,  is  frequently  spun  into  a  kind  of  yarn,  of  which  packing- 
cloths  are  made ;  it  is  useful  in  stopping  the  eff'usions  of  blooA, 
and  in  lighting  matches  for  cannon.  |  Whence  have  we  Cork  ? 
From  the  cork-tree ;  which  is  a  species  of  large  green  oak, 
growing  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gascony :  it  is  the  bark  of  this 
tree  which  we  find  so  useful  after  being  stripped  from  top  to 
bottom  in  broad  planks,  which  are  first  soaked  in  water,  and 
then  laid  together,  and  packed  up  in  bales,  ready  for  sale  ;  the 


QUESTIONS  ON  335 

cork  brougbt  from  Spain,  when  thoroughly  soaked,  is  placed 
over  burning  coals,  which  gives  the  outside  a  black  appearance. 
What  is  India-Rubber  ?  A  remarkable  resin  found  in  Asia 
and  America,  very  pliable  and  elastic :  this  substance  oozes  like 
a  liquid  from  the  tree  in  which  it  is  produced.  How  does  it 
acquire  consistence?  As  this  hquor  dries,  it  takes  the  appear- 
ance and  solidity  of  leather.  The  savage  nations  catch  it  from 
the  tree,  and  make  it  into  bottles,  goblets,  etc.  How  are  these 
bottles  made  ?  By  forming  moulds  of  clay  in  the  shape  desired, 
and  covering  them  with  thin  coats  of  this  resin,  one  upon  an- 
other ;  when  thick  enough,  and  well  dried,  they  break  or  take 
out  the  moulds,  and  the  resin  appears  in  the  state  the  Europeans 
receive  it.  What  is  Cochineal  ?  An  insect,  which  lives  upon 
the  plant  called  opuntia,  growing  in  New  Spain  ;  it  sucks  the 
crimson  juice  of  the  fruit :  these  insects  have  in  their  inside  a 
beautiful  red  dust,  which  is  used  for  dying  scarlet,  crimson,  and 
purple :  they  are  sent  dried  to  Europe  in  great  quantities. 

Where  do  Nutmegs  grow  ?  In  the  Banda  Islands :  the 
Dutch,  to  whom  these  islands  are  subject,  sell  the  nutmegs  to 
the  other  European  nations.  The  harvest  for  them  is  in  June. 
What  is  Mace  ?  The  shell  of  the  nutmeg.  What  are  Cloves  ? 
Small  aromatic  spices ;  the  bud  of  the  nutmeg  before  the  fruit 
is  formed.  Where  is  Cinnamon  cultivated?  Chiefly  in  the 
isle  of  Ceylon :  the  fruit  of  the  cinnamon-tree,  when  boiled 
down,  and  squeezed  hard,  affords  a  greenish  sort  of  wax,  which, 
after  being  whitened,  is  made  into  tapers.  The  bark  of  the  tree 
affords  the  spice  we  use :  the  inner  bark  is  the  best ;  the  outer 
is  coarse. 

What  is  Ivory  ?  The  teeth  of  elephants  :  that  brought  from 
the  isle  of  Ceylon  is  the  most  valuable,  as  it  never  turns  yellow. 
The  shavings  of  ivory,  boiled  to  a  jelly,  have  the  same  restora- 
tive effect  as  those  of  hartshorn.  What  is  Vermicelli?  A 
composition  made  of  flour,  eggs,  and  saff"ron ;  used  by  the  Ital- 
ians chiefly  in  soups.  What  is  Mohair  ?  A  stuff',  or  camlet, 
made  from  the  hair  of  the  Angora  goat :  there  are  two  kinds  of 
mohair ;  the  one  calendered,  which  has  a  glossy  and  watered 
look;  the  other  rough  and  plain.  What  is  Cotton?^  A  down 
procured  from  the  pod  of  the  cotton-tree,  which  flo*urishes  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  the  United  States,  particularly 
Georgia  and  Florida.  When  its  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size 
of  a  walnut,  is  ripe,  the  shell  bursts,  the  cotton  is  then  gathered, 
and  picked  for  use  :  its  value  in  diff'erent  manufactures,  particu- 
larly in  that  of  muslin,  is  well  kncjwn.  Whence  is  Sugar  pro- 
cured ?     From  the  sugar-cane,  which  is  a  beautiful  plant,  culfci- 


336  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

vated  chiefly  in  the  West  Indies  and  Louisiana ;  it  has  long 
green  leaves,  and  grows  very  much  like  Indian-corn,  throwing 
out  a  beautiful  bunch  of  lilac  flowers  at  the  top,  which  resem- 
ble a  bunch  of  feathers ;  and  the  fields,  when  in  bloom,  present  • 
a  most  beautiful  appearance.  How  is  the  sugar  prepared? 
The  long  canes,  which  frequently  grow  to  the  height  of  twelve 
feet,  are  cut  after  blooming ;  the  leaves,  which  grow  only  near 
the  top,  are  chopped  off",  and  Serve  as  fodder  for  cattle  and 
horses,  when  freshly  cut.  These  canes  are  then  carried  to  the 
mills  and  pressed  between  immense  cylinders  of  iron,  until  the 
juice  is  enthely  expressed,  and  the  canes  are  then  dried  for  fuel. 
What  is  done  with  the  juice?  It  is  conveyed  to  the  "boiling- 
house"  by  gutters  from  the  mill,  and  there  boiled  and  skimmed, 
passing  through  five  difierent  boilers  of  copper,  kept  at  difi"erent 
degrees  of  heat.  When  nearly  boiled,  a  certain  proportion  of 
lime  is  added,  which  causes  the  sirup  to  granulate ;  and  it  is 
then  discharged  into  large  wooden  receivers,  and  left  to  cooh 
What  is  next  done  ?  When  cool,  the  sugar  is  canied  to  the 
hogsheads,  which  are  placed  on  beams  of  wood  traversing  an 
apartment,  beneath  which  is  a  large  wooden  cistern,  to  receive 
the  molasses  which  runs  from  the  sugar,  through  holes  bored 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hogsheads  for  that  purpose ;  and  here  it 
remains  until  the  molasses,  or  sirup,  is  entirely  drained  from  it, 
when  the  hogsheads  are  tightly  covered  and  made  ready  for 
exportation.  How  much  does  a  hogshead  contain  ?  From  six- 
teen to  eighteen  hundred  weight.  What  is  sugar  when  thus 
prepared  called  ?  Muscovada  or  Brown  Sugar.  How  is  White 
or  Loaf  Sugar  prepared?  The  brown  sugar  is  boiled  over 
again  and  refined,  by  steaming,  when  the  sugar  becomes  white 
and  hard.  How  is  Rum  made?  Rum  is  a  liquor  resembling 
brandy,  made  from  the  scum  of  the  sugar,  molasses,  water,  and 
a  certain  portion  of  the  lees  of  former  distillations  of  rum,  called 
*' Dunder^  How  is  it  prepared?  The  proper  proportions 
being  mixed,  it  is  put  in  large  cisterns,  where  it  remains  several 
days  to  ferment.  After  the  fennentation  subsides,  the  hquor  is 
put  into  a  large  vessel  called  a  "  still,"  made  of  copper,  and  re- 
sembling an  immense  oil-flask,  with  a  long  tube  attached,  w^hich 
passes  through  a  cistern  of  cold  water :  it  has  a  small  opening 
at  one  end,  leading  into  another  vessel,  or  receiver.  A  fire  is 
apphed  beneath  the  large  end  of  the  still,  and  the  vapor  which 
rises  from  it  is  condensed  by  passing  through  the  cold  water, 
and  is  poured  through  the  tube  into  the  receiver.  This  hquor . 
is  rum. 

How  are  Gm  and  Brandy  made  .     Gin,  from  the  juniper^ 


QUESTIONS  ON  337 

berries,  distilled  like  rum  with  brandy  and  malt  spirits ;  and 
brandy  is  distilled  from  wine  :  an  inferior  kind  may  be  procured 
from  cider,  or  from  raisins.  What  is  Spermaceti  ?  An  oily 
substance  found  in  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale :  the  method 
used  in  preparing  it  is,  to  boil  it  over  the  fire,  and  pour  it  into 
moulds ;  this  boiling  is  repeated  till  it  becomes  perfectly  white 
and  refined  :  it  it  then  made  into  candles ;  the  oil  procured  from 
the  fat  of  the  body  is  the  best  for  lamps.  What  is  Glass  ?  A 
transparent  brittle  substance,  made  from  sand,  salts,  lead,  flags 
or  stones,  and  flints.  Whence  are  the  salts  extracted  ?  Gene- 
rally from  the  ashes  of  a  marine  plant,  called  kali ;  but  thistles, 
brambles,  and  other  plants,  are  sometimes  used,  on  account  of 
the  salts  they  contain.  Which  are  the  different  kinds  of  glass  ? 
Crystal  flint* glass,  used  for  plate,  coach-glasses,  looking-glasses, 
and  other  optical  instruments ;  crystal  white-glass,  which  in- 
cludes toys,  crown-glass,  vials,  and  drinking-vessels  :  the  other 
kinds  of  glass  chiefly  used  are  green  and  bottle  glass.  Glass 
was  first  common  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  — '' 

How  are  Candles  made  ?  From  fat,  chiefly  that  of  sheep 
and  cows :  the  common  candles  are  dipped  in  boiling  tallow ; 
the  other  kinds  are  made  in  moulds.  The  wicks  are  always  of 
spun  cotton.  How  are  mould  candles  made  ?  In  tin  tubes ; 
the  wick  being  fastened  by  a  wire  in  the  middle  of  the  mould, 
the  melted  tallow  is  then  poured  into  it :  when  filled,  it  is  placed 
in  the  air  to  harden,  when  the  tube  is  removed.  Wax  candles 
have  generally  a  flaxen  wick,  which  is  covered  with  white  or 
yellow  wax:  they  have  a  particular  mould  for  those  called 
tapers,  which  are  often  used  at  funerals.  What  is  Sealing- 
Wax  ■?  A  composition  made  of  gum  lacca  and  resin ;  the  red 
is  colored  with  vermilion :  sealing-wax  was  supposed  to  be  first 
prepared  in  Europe  by  the  Portuguese,  who  learned  the  eastern 
method  in  their  Bengal  settlements.  What  is  Paper  ?  A  sub- 
stance made,  by  Europeans,  of  rags ;  by  the  Chinese,  of  silk : 
the  discoverer  is  unknown,  but  it  was  introduced  into  Europe 
towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  How  is  paper  made  ? 
The  rags  are  first  sorted,  then  carried  to  the  mill,  and  put  into 
an  engine  placed  in  a  large  trough  filled  with  water ;  this  en- 
gine has  long  spikes  of  iron  fixed  in  it,  and  by  moving  round 
with  great  swiftness,  soon  tears  the  rags  every  way,  and  reduces 
them  to  a  pulp :  moulds  are  then  used,  the  size  of  a  sheet  ot 
paper,  which  are  dipped  into  this  pulp,  and  shaken  about  till  it 
becomes  of  the  consistence  the  makers  wish  it  to  be.  Several 
of  these  moulds  are  laid  one  upon  another,  with  a  piece  of  felt 
placed  between  each;  and  after  being  twice  pressed,  are  hung 

39 


338  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

up  to  dry.  What  other  process  does  it  go  through  ?  When 
dry,  the  paper  is  taken  off  the  hnes,  and  rubbed  smooth  with 
the  hand ;  it  is  then  sized.  How  is  the  size  made  ?  Of  clean 
parchment  and  vellum  shavings  ;  the  size  is  strained  through  a 
fine  cloth,  which  is  strewed  with  powdered  white  vitriol  and 
alum ;  the  paper  is  dipped  in  this,  and  after  being  pressed  a 
third  time,  it  is  separated  sheet  by  sheet  to  drjif  and  then  made 
up  into  quires  and  reams. 

What  is  the  use  of  common  Oil  ?  Its  use  in  dressing  wool, 
skins,  thickening  pitch,  and  preparing  soap,  is  well  known : 
painting,  and  medicine  also,  are  indebted  to  it ;  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  pole  find  it  extremely  serviceable  in  enlightening 
their  gloomy  regions,  six  months  in  the  year.  What  is  Soap  ? 
A  substance  made,  when  hard,  from  the  lees  of  ashes,  mixed 
with  tallow ;  that  called  CastUe  or  Spanish  soap,  is  made  from 
a  mixture  of  olive  oil  with  barilla ;  the  green  soft  soap  is  pre- 
pared from  the  lees  of  hme  and  potashes,  joined  to  a  proper 
quantity  of  oil.  The  manufacture  of  soap  was  brought  into 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  What  is  Tartar  ?  An 
acid  salt,  which  sticks  to  the  sides  of  large  vessels,  or  tuns,  filled 
with  wine,  and  is  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  the  liquor : 
tartar  is  purified  by  boiling  it  in  clear  water,  and  then  suffering 
the  salt  particles  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Cream  of 
tartar  is  that  part  which,  owing  to  the  evaporation  caused  by 
the  heat  of  tartar  when  purifying,  crystaUizes  upon  the  liquor. 
Emetic  tartar  is  composed  of  tlie  acid  of  the  tartar,  mixed  with 
antimony. 

What  is  the  Chinese  Aloe,  or  Sandal  Wood  ?  A  large  tree, 
in  shape  like  an  olive,  which  is  furnished  with  three  singular 
barks  .  the  outer  one,  called  eagle-wood,  is  black  and  heavy  ; 
the  second  is  brown,  and  very  light — it  has  also  the  properties 
of  a  candle,  and  when  burnt  in  the  fire  has  an  agreeable  smell ; 
the  third  bark,  at  the  heart  of  the  tree,  is  used  as  a  cordial  in 
fainting  fits,  and  for  perfuming  clothes  and  apartments.  This 
wood  is  so  precious  among  the  Chinese,  that  jewels  are  fre- 
quently set  in  it.  What  are  the  other  uses  of  this  tree  ?  When 
incisions  are  made  in  its  bark,  a  cooling  liquor  flows  from  it, 
which,  when  kept  long  enough,  makes  good  vinegar;  the 
branches,  when  eaten,  are  said  to  have  the  flavor  of  candied  cit- 
ron ;  the  sharp  points  which  rise  upon  the  branches  are  used  by 
the  Indians  for  darts  and  nails ;  its  leaves  serve  as  a  covering 
for  their  houses,  and  when  dried,  are  shaped  into  dishes  and 
plates ;  ropes  are  made  of  the  roots,  and  the  fibres  of  the  leaves 
we  manufactured  into  thread.  • 


QUESTIONS  ON  839 

Whence  is  Mahogany  procured  ?  From  the  island  of  Jamai- 
ca, from  St.  Domingo,  and  the  bay  of  Honduras ;  it  grows  also 
in  the  southern  parts  of  East  Florida ;  but  the  wood  is  not  sc 
beautifully  grained.  What  is  common  Salt  ?  Common  salt,  or 
bay  salt,  is  a  compound  of  muriatic  acid  and  soda,  and  is  pro- 
cured by  evaporation  from  sea-water,  or  from  the  produce  of 
brine-springs.  Rock  salt  is  dug  from  the  mines  in  Sweden, 
Russia,  and  Cheshire :  in  California  there  are  plains  of  clear,  firm 
salt,  and  also  in  some  of  the  western  States.  Kentucky  is  fa- 
mous for  its  salt  ponds  or  hcks,  to  which  the  cattle  resort  for 
that  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  preserve  life  in  all  animals. 
What  is  common  Glue  ?  The  sinews  and  feet  of  animals,  boiled 
down  to-  a  strong  jelly.  What  is  Isinglass  ?  A  transparent 
jelly,  made  from  the  entrails  of  a  fish.  What  is  Granite  ?  A 
hard  granular  rock,  found  in  the  most  elevated  places  :  the  Irish 
and  Scotch  granite  possess  remarkable  durability ;  but  the 
English  imbibes  moisture  easily,  and  soon  goes  to  decay.  What 
are  Kermes  ?  Gall-nuts,  taken  from  green  oaks  in  the  Pyre- 
nees, used  for  dying  scarlet.  What  is  Brazil  Wood  ?  A  red 
wood  brought  from  Brazil,  in  South  America,  used  by  dyers. 

What  is  Sago  ?  Sago  is  produced  from  the  pith  of  the  lan- 
dan-tree,  which  grows  in  the  Moluccas,  and  resembles  the  palm  : 
when  cloven  asunder  and  cut  down,  the  pith  is  taken  out,  which 
is  then  by  a  pestle  reduced  to  a  powder  resembling  meal ;  this 
is  made  up  into  a  paste  and  then  dried  in  a  furnace,  when  it  be- 
comes fit  for  use. 

What  is  Potash  ?  The  lixivial  ashes  of  those  vegetables  which 
abound  in  saline  particles  ;  of  these  kali  is  esteemed  the  best : 
potash  is  of  infinite  use  in  the  fulling  of  cloth,  and  manufacture 
of  soap  and  glass. 

What  is  Kali  ?  A  marine  plant  used  in  making  glass.  From 
the  name  of  this  plant,  those  substances  which  ferment  with  acids 
are  called  alkalies ;  the  mixture  of  an  alkali  with  unctuous  sub- 
stances makes  soap  ;  with  silicious  (or  flinty)  earths,  glass. 

What  is  Gamboge  ?  A  vegetable  juice  of  the  finest  yellow 
color,  brought  to  Europe,  in  a  concrete  state,  from  Cambodia, 
in  the  East  Indies. 

How  is  Birdlime  made  ?  This  viscous  substance  is  procured 
from  the  holly  bark. 

What  is  Guaiacura  ?  Guaiacum  (or  lignum  vitce)  grows  both 
in  Africa  and  America ;  its  wood  is  used  by  turners ;  and  its  resin 
in  medicine,  on  account  of  its  warm  stimulating  qualities. 

V/hat  is  Putty  ?  A  paste  used  by  glaziers  and  house-paint- 
ers, made  of    whitmg,  linseed  oil,  and  white-lead.     What  i» 


S40  COMMON  SUBJECTS. 

Turpentine  ?  A  resin  which  flows  either  by  incision  or  sponta- 
neously from  the  larch,  pine,  and  fir :  turpentine  is  valuable  in 
medicinal  cases,  and  its  oil,  called  spirits*  of  turpentine,  is  useful 
in  many  different  cases. 

What  is  Pounce  ?  Gum  sandarac  reduced  to  a  fine  powder, 
and  used  to  prevent  the  sinking  of  paper  after  the  erasure  of 
writing. 

What  is  Emery?  A  combination  of  iron  and  other  sub- 
stances, found  in  large  masses,  extremely  hard  and  heavy : 
emery  is  prepared  by  grinding  in  mills ;  the  powder  thus  pro- 
cured is  separated  into  three  sorts,  each  kind  differing  in  fine- 
ness ;  they  are  used  by  artificers,  to  polish  and  burnish  iron  and 
steel,  and  for  cutting  and  scalloping  glass. 

What  is  Ambergris  ?  Ambergris  (or  gray  amber)  is  £.  per- 
fume found  in  the  intestines  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  or  floatinof 
on  the  sea ;  it  is  an  unctuous  solid  body  of  an  ash  color :  the 
Europeans  value  it  only  as  a  scent ;  the  Asiatics  and  Africans 
use  it  in  cookery. 

What  are  Resins  ?  They  are  thick  juices  oozing  from  pines 
and  firs  :  mastic  is  the  resin  of  the  lentisk-tree,  chiefly  procured 
from  the  isle  of  Chios.  Storax  is  also  a  medicinal  resin,  which 
flows  from  incisions  made  in  a  nut-tree  of  the  same  name ;  resins 
are  distinguished  from  gums  by  being  more  sulphureous. 

Whence  is  Sulphur  procured  ?  It  is  dug  out  of  the  earth  in 
many  places,  but  chiefly  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  South  America ; 
it  is  generally  of  a  yellow  color,  hard,  and  brittle :  sulphur  va- 
pors have  the  property  of  bleaching  any  substance. 

What  is  meant  by  Flours  of  Sulphur  ?  A  fine  powder  into 
which  sulphur  is  volatilized,  by  an  exposure  to  excessive  heat. 

What  are  Spirits  of  Wine  ?  Brandy  rectified  (or  distilled) 
over  again. 

What  is  ^thv)r  ?  ^ther  is  made  by  distilling  acids  with 
rectified  spirits  of  wine. 

What  is  Manganese  ?  A  metal  found  in  great  abundance  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Sweden  and  Germany : 
its  ore  is  used  by  glass  manufacturers,  to  remove  the  greenish 
hue  seen  in  wliite  glass. 

What  is  Copal  ?  A  gum  of  the  resinous  kind,  the  juice  of  a 
tree  growing  in  New  Spain ;  mixed  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  it 
makes  a  well-known  transparent  varnish. 

How  is  Gunpowder  made  ?  It  is  composed  of  saltpetre,  sul- 
phur, and  charcoal.  The  saltpetre  makes  its  strength,  the  sul- 
phur serves  to  inflame  the  whole,  and  the  charcoal  prevents  its 
too  sudden  extinction. 


QUESTIONS    CN  341 

How  is  Starch  made  ?  By  steeping  wheat  in  water  until  the 
nusk  is  softened  ;  it  is  then  pressed  through  canvass  bags,  and 
the  Hquid  is  allowed  to  subside,  in  shallow  vessels.  The  water 
is  then  poured  off,  and  the  white  powder  which  remains  at  the 
bottom  is  dried,  and  is  starch.  It  was  first  used  in  England  for 
stiffening  linen  in  Mary's  time  :  hair-powder  is  made  from  it. 

Whence  have  we  Musk  ?  This  perfume,  used  also  medici- 
nally, is  produced  from  an  animal  about  the  size  of  a  common 
goat,  a  native  of  Tonquin,  China,  Bantam,  and  also  of  Thibet : 
the  musk  of  Thibet  is  esteemed  the  least  adulterated. 

What  is  Gas  ?  An  elastic  aerial  fluid,  of  which  ther.e  are 
different  kinds  ;  some  being  acid,  as  carbonic  acid  ;  some  alka- 
Hes,  as  ammonia,  etc.  Gas-light  is  produced  by  gas  burning  in 
lamps.  The  gas  is  conveyed  away  by  pipes,  and  burnt  at  the 
orifice  of  escape :  it  is  produced  either  from  pit- coal  or  whale-oil. 

What  is  Steam  ?  A  vapor  that  arises  from  the  application 
of  heat  to  water  or  any  other  fluid.  The  expansive  force  of 
stearn  has  supplied  a  power  to  the  mechanist,  which  is  now  ap- 
plied to  navigation,  land- carriage,  artillery,  and  every  descrip- 
tion of  work  requiring  considerable  power. 

How  is  Arrow-root  made,  and  what  is  it  ?  It  is  a  root  which 
grows  in  the  West  Indies,  the  island  of  Madeira,  the  Bermudas, 
and  some  of  the  southern  states.  When  fit  for  use,  it  throws 
up  long  shoots  from  the  root,  which  grow  higher  than  the  other 
leaves  of  the  plant,  and  as  straight  as  an  arrow,  from  which  it 
takes  its  name.  The  roots  are  dug  when  ripe,  ground  in  a  mill, 
»nd  then  mixed  with  water  until  of  the  consistence  of  thin  paste. 
iJQis  is  then  strained  and  wrung  out  perfectly  dry,  through  can- 
vass. The  dry  pulp  is  thrown  away.  The  juice  subsides  as 
starch ;  the  water  is  poured  off,  and  the  powder  again  mixed 
with  water  and  strained :  this  is  repeated  several  times,  until 
the  powder  is  perfectly  white  and  pure,  when  it  is  dried  and 
put  up  for  sale.  The  best  is  from  the  West  Indies,  dried  by 
the  sun. 

What  is  Wax-?  It  is  the  faiina  or  pollen  of  flowers,  which  is 
eaten  by  the  bees,  and  is  converted  by  an  animal  process  into 
wax.  All  wax  is  one  color,  however  variously  colored  the  farina 
from  which  it  is  produced ;  and  this  whiteness  is  injured  by 
age,  and  in  time  is  altogether  lost.  When  wax  is  simply  melted, 
it  is  yellow.  What  is  Cheese  ?  Milk  or  cream  warmed,  and 
then  curdled  by  the  aid  of  rennet,  which  is  the  stomach  of  a 
calf,  perfectly  well  cleaned  and  prepared.  The  milk  or  cream 
is  thus  divided  into  two  parts  ;  the  curds,  or  thick,  coagulated 
part,  and  the  whey,  or  watery  part.  The  curds  are  pressed  as 
29* 


342  COMMON    SUBJECTS. 

dry  as  possible,  salted,  and  then  formed  into  large  masses,  which 
are  put  into  moulds  or  Tats,  and  then  pressed  down  tightly  to 
form  the  cheese.  Whence  is  Saltpetre  procured  ?  It  is  found 
in  earthy  substances,  but  sometimes  it  is  gathered  native  and 
pure.  Large  quantities  are  brought  from  the  East  Indies ;  it  is 
considered  as  a  distinct  species  of  salt.  What  are  its  uses  ?  It 
Ls  used  for  preserving  meat,  as  an  ingredient  in  glass-making, 
and  has  the  pecuhar  property  of  possessing  a  strong  inflamma- 
ble quahty.  What  is  Charcoal?  It  is  wood  half  burnt,  or 
charred  ;  the  wood  is  cut  into  proper  lengths,  then  heaped  up 
into  piles,  which  are  covered  with  turf,  and  then  well  toated 
with  a  plaster  made  of  earth  and  charcoal-dust,  leaving  only  a 
few  vent-holes  for  the  flames  to  issue  from.  At  the  end  of  two 
or  three  days,  the  wood  is  sufficiently  charred,  the  holes  are 
then  stopped  up,  and  the  fire  consequently  goes  out.  What 
are  the  difierent  uses  of  charcoal  ?  It  is  used  in  making  gun- 
powder, being  first  reduced  to  powder,  and  in  all  arts  and  man- 
ufactories where  a  strong  fire  is  required  without  smoke.  Its 
powder  is  useful  in  polishing,  and  makes  the  best  tooth-powder 
kno^vn.  What  is  Wine?  The  fermented  juice  of  fruits:  of 
these  there  is  a  great  variety ;  but  the  w4ne  made  from  grapes 
is  esteemed  the  most  valuable.  What  is  fermentation  ?  The 
state  into  which  vegetable  substances  pass  when  deprived  of  the 
vital  principle.  There  are  three  kinds  of  fermentation,  that  some- 
times succeed  one  another :  first,  the  vinous  or  spirituous ; 
second,  the  acetous  or  acid;  third,,  the  putrid  fermentation. 
The  first  produces  wine,  the  second  vinegar,  and  the  third  is 
when  the  substance,  whatever  it  is,  is  spoiled.  What  is  Cider  ? 
The  expressed  juice  of  apples,  without  any  admixture  of  water, 
or  any  other  ingredient.  When  first  drawn  from  the  fruit,  the 
juice  is  perfectly  sweet,  but  in  a  few  hours  it  ferments ;  and  a 
clear,  vinous,  or  spirituous  liquor  is  obtained.  What  is  Arrack  ? 
It  is  procured  by  distillation  from  a  vegetable  juice,  called  toddy, 
which  flows  by  incision  from  the  cocoanut-tree.  In  Batavia,  the 
same  name  is  given  to  a  spirit  distilled  from  a  mixture  of  rice, 
sugar,  and  water.  What  is  the  method  of  procuring  Toddy  ? 
The  Indians  provide  themselves  with  several  round,  earthen  pots, 
and  fasten  them  around  the  cocoanut-tree,  making  incisions  near 
the  mouth  of  each.  The  next  morning  the  jars  are  found  full 
of  a  sweet  liquor,  which,  when  allowed  to  stand,  quickly  fer- 
ments, and  is  then  distilled  into  arrack.  What  is  Amber  ?  Its 
exact  origin  has  not  yet  been  ascertained :  by  some  it  is  thought 
a  mineral  production ;  by  others  a  vegetable  gum.  It  is  of len 
t€>iind  floating  in  the  sea,  and  is  continually  dug  from  mines.    It 


QUESTIONS    ON  343 

has  a  veiy  striking  property,  in  its  power  of  attracting  all  light 
substances,  such  as  paper,  which  from  a  certain  distance  fly 
towards  the  amber,  when  heated  by  friction,  and  stick  to  it. 
What  is  Ambergris  ?  It  is  found  floating  in  the  sea,  but  more 
commonly  in  the  intestines  of  a  particular  kind  of  whale.  It 
was  formerly  used  as  a  medicine,  but  now  only  as  a  perfume  ; 
in  its  scent,  it  somewhat  resembles  musk.  What  is  Musk  ?  A 
dark-colored  substance,  obtained  from  an  animal  called  mos- 
chus,  or  the  musk.  It  is  found  in  a  pouch,  under  the  tail. 
What  is  Alum  ?  A  mineral  salt,  extracted  from  certain  clayey 
earths,  by  calcination,  or  burning.  Near  Whitby,  in  Yorkshire, 
the  principal  English  alum-works  are  situated.  The  ore,  or 
earth,  is  laid  up  in  heaps,  and  burnt  with  wood,  until  it  becomes 
white  ;  it  is  then  macerated,  or  steeped  in  water,  for  some  time. 
This  water  is  afterwards  boiled  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  al- 
lowed to  stand,  that  all  the  gross  parts  may  subside  to  the  bot- 
tom ;  when  clear  it  runs  into  coolers,  where  the  alum  crystal- 
lizes, or  forms  itself  into  a  transparent  substance.  What  are 
the  principal  uses  of  alum  ?  It  is  used  to  fix  the  colors  in  dy- 
ing ;  also  in  the  process  of  tanning ;  is  added  to  tallow,  to  give 
candles  hardness  ;  and  is  much  employed  in  medicine.  How  is 
China-ware  or  Porcelain  made  ?  It  is  composed  of  two  ingre- 
dients— a  certain  hard  rocky  stone,  called  silex,  ground  to  a 
very  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  a  white  earthy  substance,  or 
clay.  These  are  thrown  into  a  well-paved  pit,  and  kneaded  to- 
gether, generally  by  the  feet  of  the  workmen  ;  from  this  mass  a 
small  quantity  is  taken,  and  separately  kneaded,  till  it  comes  to 
a  proper  state  for  moulding.  This  paste  passes  through  the 
hands  of  some  twenty  workmen,  each  of  whom  assists  in  shaping 
it ;  artists  then  sketch  and  paint  the  outside  of  the  vessel,  in  the 
manner  directed :  it  is  then  placed  in  a  small  wooden  frame, 
each  article  separate,  and  baked  in  the  furnace.  What  are 
Bricks  ?  They  are  formed  from  a  composition  of  a  rich  yellow- 
ish earth,  called  loam,  shaped  in  a  wooden  mould  :  next  par- 
tially dried,  by  being  placed  in  rows  in  the  open  air,  and  then 
piled  up  into  separate  heaps,  and  properly  l^urnt.  When  used 
lor  building,  they  are  joined  together,  or  cemented  by  mortar. 
What  is  Mortar  ?  A  due  mixture  of  lime  and  sand  with  water, 
to  which  some  cut  horse-hair  is  generally  added,  which  serves 
to  bind  or  connect  the  mortar.  What  is  I^eather  ?  The  skin 
of  cattle  ;  the  hair  is  taken  oft'  by  steeping  the  skin  in  lime- 
water,  and  then  scraping  it  clean  with  a  "knife  and  pumice- 
stone  :  it  is  then  stretched  in  a  pit,  covered  with  tan,  or  oak 
bark,  and  the  pit  filled  with  water ;  this  process  changes  the 


,344  COMMON    SUBJECTS. 

sldn  into  leather.  After  tanning,  it  is  sold  to  the  currier,  -whoj 
by  yarious  operations  of  scouring,  greasing,  waxing,  sizing,  and 
blacking,  finishes  it  for  the  use  of  shoemakers,  saddlers,  etc. 
What  is  Morocco  Leather  ?  The  skin  of  a  goat,  dressed  in 
sumach  ;  a  shrub  yielding  a  certain  juice.  WHht  are  Pens  ? 
The  quills  or  strong  wing-feathers  of  the  goose.  What  sort  of  a 
plant  is  the  Tobacco  Plant  ?  It  is  propagated  by  seed,  :  nd 
requires  being  frequently  watered,  and  much  sheltered  from  the 
excessive,  heat  of  the  sun.  When  it  has  attained  maturity,  it  is 
cut  down,  and  hung  in  the  shade  to  dry  ;  when  dried,  the  leaves 
are  pulled  off  the  stalks  and  made  up  into  bundles ;  they  are 
then  steeped  in  sea-water,  and  afterwards  formed  into  ropes,  by 
winding  them  around  a  stick :  it  is  then  cut  up  for  smoking,  or 
dried  and  powdered  for  snuff.  What  is  Coral  ?  It  is  solely 
of  animal  origin,  and  produced  by  a  species  of  polypus,  which  is 
supposed  to  form  the  coral  for  its  habitation ;  and  thus  a  con- 
stant supply  of  this  admired  substance  is  continually  forming. 
Where  is  it  found  ?  On  rocks  at  a  considerable  depth  in  the 
sea,  where  it  is  regularly  gathered  by  established  collectors, 
who  call  themselves  coral-fishermen.  The  principal  coral  fisher- 
ies are  at  Marseilles,  in  France,  and  the  straits  of  Messina. 
What  are  Needles  and  Pins  made  of  ?  Needles  are  made  of 
steel,  and  Pins  of  brass  wire,  afterwards  whitened,  by  lying  in 
a  solution  of  tin  and  lees,  or  dregs  of  wine.  What  is  Allspice  ? 
It  has  obtained  its  name  from  being  supposed  to  possess  the 
flavor  of  all  the  spices  ;  its  proper  name  is  pimento,  and  it  grows 
in  large  quantities  in  Jamaica,  and  in  most  other  parts  of  the 
West  Indies.  What  is  Liquorice  ?  The  juice  of  a  plant  of  the 
same  name,  that  is  cultivated  in  England ;  it  is  "planted  by  slips, 
in  April  or  May,  and  at  three  years  old  is  considered  fit  for 
being  dug  up :  from  the  long  sticky  roots  the  sirup  is  extracted, 
and  formed  into  small  cakes. 

What  is  the  Butter-tree  ?  A  remarkable  plant  found  in  the 
interior  of  Africa,  yielding  from  its  kernels,  by  pressure,  a  white, 
firm,  rich  butter,  which  even  in  that  climate  will  keep  well  for 
a  year  without  salt.  What  is  Assafoetida  ?  A  gum-resin  ob- 
tained from  the  root  of  a  plant  growing  in  Persia,  used  medici- 
nally. What  is  Papier-Mache  ?  A  name  given  to  articles 
manufactured  of  the  pulp  of  paper,  or  of  sheets  of  paper  pasted 
or  glued  and  powerfully  pressed  together,  so  as  to  acquire,  when 
dry,  the  hardness  of  board :  tea-trays,  waiters,  etc.,  are  thus 
prepared,  often  beautifully  ornamented  by  figures  and  land- 
scapes, and  occasionally  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl.  The  chief 
papier-mache  manufactories  are  in  England.     What  is  Tart 


QUESTIONS    ON  345 

A  dark-brown  liquid  obtained  by  Lumting  the  wood  of  tbe  fir- 
tree  ;  when  boiled,  it  is  converted  into  pitch.  What  is  Emery  1 
A  mineral  characterized  by  excessive  hardness  ;  brought  from 
Cape  Emeri,  in  the  island  of  Naxos.  Its  powder  is  used  for 
cutting  and  polishing  glass,  gems,  and  all  hard  substances. 
What  is  Cobalt  ?  A  brittle  metal,  of  a  reddish  gray  color, 
found  in  the  Swedish  mines ;  when  diluted  by  fusion  with  glass 
or  borax,  a  blue  color  is  produced,  permanent  at  a  very  high 
temperature,  which  renders  it  an  invaluabk  article  in  the  manu- 
facture of  porcelain  and  pottery.  What  is  Marble  ?  A  name 
given  to  the  varieties  of  granular  stone  susceptible  of  a  very  fine 
polish.  The  most  valuable  sorts  used  by  the  ancients  were  the 
Pentelican,  which  was  white,  and  obtained  from  Mount  Pentiles, 
in  Africa ;  and  the  Parian,  also  white,  from  the  island  of  Paros, 
The  black  marbles  most  used  were  the  Numidian.  The  quar- 
ries of  Carrara  now  almost  supply  the  world  wUh  white  marble 
What  is  Sepia  ?  A  species  of  pigment  prepi-red  from  a  black 
juice  secreted  by  certain  glands  of  the  sepia,  or  cuttle-fish, 
which  the  animal  ejects,  both  to  darken  the  water  when  it  is 
pursued,  and  as  a  direct  means  of  annoyance.  It  was  used  as 
an  ink  by  the  ancients,  and  when  prepared  with  caustic  ley, 
forms  a  beautiful  brown  color,  with  a  fine  grain,  and  has  given 
name  to  a  species  of  drawing,  now  extensively  cultivated  for 
landscapes,  and  other  branches  of  the  fine  arts.  What  is  Ver- 
digris ?  A  blue-green  pigment,  originally  prepared  in  the  south 
of  France,  by  covering  copper  plates  with  the  refuse  of  the 
grape  after  the  expression  of  the  juice  for  wine.  What  is 
Guano  ?  A  substance  found  upon  certain  small  islands  in  the 
South  sea,  which  are  the  resort  of  large  flocks  of  birds,  and 
chiefly  composed  of  their  excrement :  it  is  said  to  form  beds 
fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  thickness,  and  is  an  excellent  manure. 
What  is  the  Telescope  ?  An  optical  instrument  for  viewing  dis- 
tant objects :  this  invention,  to  which  practical  astronomy  is 
indebted  for  its  most  important  discoveries,  has  been  ascribed 
to  various  persons,  though  many  agree  that  Roger  Bacon  was 
the  inventor ;  it  Avas  afterwards  improved  by  Galileo,  who  first 
made  a  practical  use  of  it.  Tele  scopes  are  of  two  kinds,  refract- 
ing and  reflecting ;  the  former  depending  on  the  use  of  proper 
lenses,  through  which  the  rays  of  light  pass,  and  the  latter  on 
the  use  of  specula,  or  polished  metallic  mirrors,  which  reflect 
the  rays  ;  an  inverted  image  of  the  object  being  formed  in  both 
cases,  in  the  focus  cf  tue  lens  or  mirror.  What  is  the  Tele- 
graph ?  The  name  given  to  a  mechanical  contrivance  for  the 
rapid  communication  of  intelhgence  by  signals. 


846 


ARCHITECTURE. 


QUESTIONS 


ARC  KITE  CTUEE. 


Fio.  1. 


What  is  Architecture?  Architecture  is  that  science  wLich 
caches  us  to  construct  buildings  according  to  established  ruies. 
Almost  every  nation  has  its  own  manner  of  arranging  the  parts  of 
those  buildings  required  for  residence  or  worship  ;  and  it  is  to 
designate  these  different  parts  that  we  are  about  to  study  the 
terms  appHed  to  them.  Which  is  the  first  style  of  architecture 
to  be  noticed  ?  The  Grecian,  in  which  there  are  three  orders  ; 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  What  do 
the  names  of  these  orders  signify  ?  The 
Doric  denominates  strength,  the  Ionic 
beauty  and  elegance,  the  Corinthian  luxu- 
riance and  grace.  What  is  the  first  thing 
to  be  understood  ?  The  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  column.  How  are  these 
divided  ?  First,  into  three  parts;  the  en- 
tablature, the  column,  and  the  pedestal ; 
and  each  of  these  three  parts  into  three 
others,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  (Fig.  1.) 
The  entablature  {E)  consists  of  the  cor- 
nice, (c,)  the  frieze,  (/,)  and  the  archi- 
trave, (a.)  The  column  (C)  is  divided 
into  the  capital,  (c^,)  the  shaft,  {s,)  and 
the  base,  {h.)  The  pedestal  (P)  is  made 
up  of  the  cornice,  (</^)  the  die,  {d,)  and 
the  plinth,  (p.)  All  of  these  divisions 
consist  of  two  or  more  mouldings,  the 
forms  of  which  are  suited  to  the  order  in 
which  they  are  introduced.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  consequence  that  the  column, 
intablature,  and  pedestal,  should  be  so 
formed  aa  to  have  a  uniform  character. 
When  was  architecture  studied  by  the 
Komans  ?  At  an  early  period  of  their 
dlstory.     When  was  the  temple  of  Jupi- 


QUESTIONS    ON 


347 


ter  commenced  ?  The  ancient  temple  of  Jupiter,  in  tlie  Capi- 
tol, was  commenced  during  the  reign  of  the  elder  Tarquin,  by 
Etruscan  workmen.  Did  the  Romans  adopt  the  three  orders 
of  Grecian  architecture  ?  Yes,  and  they  also  introduced  two 
others ;  the  Tuscan,  a  slight  alteration  from  the  Doric,  and  the 
Composite,  a  slight  alteration  from  the  Corinthian ;  thus  making 
the  five  orders  of  architecture  generally  spoken  of.  What  may 
be  said  if  we  compare  the  architecture  of  the  two  nations  ? 
That  the  Grecian  was  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  propor- 
tions and  the  simplicity  and  elegance  of  its  decorations ;  the 
Roman  for  the  redundance  of  its  ornament. 

What  is  the  form  of  the  Doric  column  ?     It  is  represented  in 
fiofure  No.  2.     The  Grecian  Doric  is  almost  universally  made 


Fig.  2. 


without  a  base  ;  but  the  Roman  has 
one  in  nearly  every  instance.  What 
was  the  first  style  of  architectm-e 
used  in  Greece  ?  The  Doric,  said  to 
be  so  called  from  Dorus,  son  of  He- 
lena, king  of  Achaia  and  Peloponne- 
sus ;  or  from  the  Dorians,  a  Grecian 
tribe  livmg  to  the  north  of  the  gulf 
of  Corinth.  What  fable  is  told  to 
account  for  the  dimensions  of  this 
column  ?  A  party  of  Greeks  having 
been  sent  under  Ilion  to  colonize  that 
part  of  Asia  before  inhabited  by  the 
Carians  and  Seleges,  built  the  cities 
of  Ephesus,  Miletus,  and  others. 
They  then  determined  to  erect  a 
temple  to  Apollo;  and  wishing  to 
build  it  with  columns,  of  which  they  did  not  know  the  proper 
proportions,  they  measured  a  man's  foot,  and  finding  it  the 
sixth  part  of  his  height,  they  gave  the  column  a  similar  pro- 
portion ;  that  is,  they  made  its  height,  including  the  capital,  six 
times  the  thickness  of  the  shaft  measured  at  its  base.  Thus  the 
Doric  order  obtained  its  proportions,  strength,  and  beauty,  from 
man,  the  perfection  of  creative  power  and  wisdom.  Describe 
the  Doric  order.  The  shaft  is  sometimes  quite  plain,  and  some- 
times fluted  at  the  top  and  bottom,  but  more  frequently  through 
its  whole  length.  The  frieze  is  ornamented  at  intervals,  with 
two  whole  and  two  half  channels,  called  (a  a)  triglyphs.  The 
interval  between  the  triglyphs  is  called  a  metope,  (6.)  How  is 
the  metope  ornamented  ?  It  is  sometimes  left  plain  and  some- 
times ornamented  with  sculptures.     What  were  the  sculptures 


m. 


Doric  Capital  and  Entablature. 


348  ARCHITECTURE. 

used  for  tliis  purpose  ?  The  skull  of  an  ox,  pateras,  garlandSs 
and  gladiators,  were  commonly  introduced  by  the  antients, 
What  is  a  Patera  ?  It  is  the  representation  of  a  cup  or  goblet, 
executed  in  bas-relief;  that  is,. sculptured  work  projecting  less 
than  half  its  proportion  from  the  surface.  Which  is  the  most 
ancient  Doric  temple  wdth  which  we  are  acquainted  ?  That  at 
Corinth ;  but  the  most  beautiful  is  that  of  Minerva,  called  the 
Parthenon,  at  Athens.  Describe  it.  It  is  of  a  rectangular  form, 
288  feet  in  length,  and  108  feet  in  breadth.  It  has  eight 
columns  in  front,  and  seventeen  on  each  side,  including  those  at 
the  angles.  It  was  built  during  the  time  of  Pericles,  and  under 
the  direction  of  Phidias.  What  is  the  Tuscan  order  ?  It  is  a 
modification  of  the  Doric.  It  was  invented,  or  rather  devised, 
by  the  Romans.  When  was  Roman  architecture  at  its  highest 
pitch  of  excellence?  In  the  days  of  the  emperor  Augustus, 
who  boasted  that  he  had  found  the  capital  a  combination  of 
buildings  formed  of  clay,  and  transfonued  them  into  marble. 
When  did  it  degenerate  again  ?     In  fio.  3. 

the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  j 

Claudius;    and   Nero,    though    he  -/ 

erected  a  building  called  the  Golden  —r j — ' 

Mansion,  had  no  idea  of  any  other  

kind  of  beauty  than  that  of  gaudy 
decoration.  When'  did  it  again  re- 
vive ?     During  the  reign  of  Trajan. 

Apollodorus,  who  lived  at  this  time,  

was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Ro-  

man  architects ;  and  if  we  may  judge  — 

from  Trajan's  column,  deserved  these  '  j 

honors.    Describe  this  column.    It  is  \ 

formed  of  Parian  marble,  and,  inclu-  c' 

ding  the  pedestal,  is  125  feet  high.  \ 

The  blocks  are  of  immense  size,  as  1 

maybe  imagined,  for  the  pedestal    En.abi.tureanacapitaUftheTu.ca.. 

consists  of  only  seven,  and  the  column  of  nineteen ;  each  of  the 
whole  diameter.  How  is  this  column  ascended?  By  steps 
within,  cut  out  of  the  solid  marble ;  on  it  was  a  statue  of  the 
emperor,  but  this  has  been  removed.  The  pedestal  is  orna- 
mented with  trophies  and  arms,  and  crow^ned  wdth  festoons  sup- 
ported by  eagles.  Which  is  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  the 
Tuscan  order  in  England  ?  The  portico  of  St.  Paul's  church. 
What  is  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Ionic  order? 
Tne  capital :  it  consists  of  four  spiral  projections,  called  volutes, 
(a  a,)  Fig.  4 ;  two  of  which  are  placed  in  front  and  two  at  the 


Fig.  3. 


7 


I 


QUESTIONS    ON 


340 


7 


back  of  the  column.     The  capital  was Fia.  4. 

more  or  less  decorated   by  the  an- 

cients  according  to  the  taste  of  the  m^^^r^^^^^^^^^'^^^v^'rAv^^y^^s^^ 
architect,  or  the  purpose  to  which  |^!/i^t^-iiy.'iiij^'ii!j;iiL^i^ujii!:^'ii^^^ — 
the  building  was  to^be  applied      To  yji^i^yj^M^Ji^ 
whom  is  the  invention  of  the  Ionic 
order  attributed?     To   the   lonians, 
who,  desiring  to  erect  a  temple  to 
Diana,  required  a  lighter  and  more 
elegant  style  than  the  Doric :  seeking 
a  new  proportion,  they  used  the  fe- 
male figure;  and  to  produce  a  more 
lofty  effect,  made  the  height  of  the 
column   eight    times   the    thickness. 
Under  it  they  placed  a  base,  in  the 

manner    of    a  shoe  to    the    foot;    they       Entablature  and  capital  of  the  ionic. 

also  added  volutes  to  the  capital,  Mke  graceful  curling  hair  on 
each  side ;  and  the  front  they  ornamented  with  cymatia  and 
festoons  in  the  place  of  hair.  On  the  shaft  they  sunk  channels, 
which  bear  a  resemblance  to  the  folds  of  a  garment.  Where 
was  there  a  famous  temple  of  this  order  in  the  days  of  the 
apostles  ?  At  Ephesus,  dedicated  to  Diana,  to  whom  the  Ephe- 
sians  paid  idolatrous  worship.  What  were  its  dimensions  ?  It 
is  said  to  have  been  425  feet  long,  and  220  feet  broad  ;  and 
the  columns  were  60  feet  high.  It  was  designed  by  Ctesiphon, 
and  was  four  hundred  years  in  building ;  the  expenses  being  paid 
by  a  tax  upon  all  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia.  Where  are  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  Ionic  ?  The  temples  of  Ilissus  and  Mi- 
nerva Pallas,  and  the  aqueduct  of  Hadrian,  at  Athens;  the 
temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos;  and  the  temple  of  Minerva  at  Pirene. 
Describe  the  Corinthian  order.  The  capital  of  the  Corin- 
thian order  consists  of  two  rows  of  eight  leaves  each,  attached 
to  a  bell-shaped  mass,  with  angular  volutes ;  between  the  vo- 
lutes are  placed  two  small  spirals  or  helices.  This  is  by  far  the 
richest  of  the  Grecian  capitals,  and  the  other  parts  are  made 
to  correspond  with  it.  The  shaft  is  fluted,  and  the  frieze  is 
often  enriched  with  sculptures.  The  cornice  also  is  decorated, 
and  the  corona  (c«)  is  supported  by  carved  medallions,  with  an 
ornamented  scroll  on  each  side,  (6.)  What  is  the  Corinthian 
order  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  ?  The  Corinthian  capital 
ig  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  Calliniachus,  its  inventor,  by 
observing  the  form  in  which  an  Acanthus  plant  had  thrown 
itself.  Repeat  the  story.  A  Corinthian  young  lady  fell  a 
fictim  to  a  violent  disorder  and  died.  After  ksr  burial,  her 
*  30 


•J50 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  5. 


Entablature  and  Capital  of  the  Corinthian. 

Fig.  6; 


nurse  collecting  in  a  basket  those  articles  to  which  she  had  a 
partiality  when  alive,  carried  them  to  her  tomb,  and  placed  a 
tile  on  the  basket  for  the  preser- 
vation of  its  contents.  The  basket 
was  accidentally  placed  on  the  root  "^ , 
of  an  Acanthus  plant,  which,  pressed  b 
by  the  weight,  shot  forth  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  its  stems  and 
large  foliage,  and  in  the  course  of 
its  growth,  reached  the  angles  of 
the  tile,  and  thus  formed  volutes 
at  the  e^itremit}^  Callimachus  hap- 
pening to  pass  by  was  pleased  with 
the  graceful  arrangement  of  the 
form,  and  from  the  hint  thus  re- 
ceived, he  constructed  the  Corin- 
thian capital.  How  is  the  Corinthian 
distinguished  from  the  Ionic  ?  By 
its  capital  and  its  proportions.  Which 
are  the  best  examples  of  the  Corin- 
thian? The  Tem- 
ple of  the  Winds, 
and  the  Arch  of 
Hadrian  at  Ath- 
ens. The  Temple 
of  Minerva,  at  Te- 
gea,  was  built  in 
this  order,  and  was 
a  superb  building ; 
but  the  city  and  its 
monuments  were 
entirely  destroyed. 

What  is  the  Composite  order?  It  was 
never  considered  by  the  ancients  as 
a  distinct  order,  but  as  a  modification 
of  the  Corinthian.  How  does  it  differ 
from  the  Corinthian?  Chiefly  in  the 
form  of  the  capital,  which  is  a  union 
of  the  volutes  of  the  Ionic,  with  the 
foliage  of  the  Corinthian.  What  has 
now  been  explained  ?  The  five  orders 
of  Architecture  as  they  are  called, 
Ihough  in  fact  there  are  but  three. 
We  shall  now  go  on  to  an  alphabetical  list  of  some  of  the 


Entablature  and  CapiUl  of  the  Compotit* . 


QUESTIONS  ON  351 

principal  teclinical  terms  used  in  Grecian  architecture,  so  as 
to  enable  the  pupil  to  name  the  several  members,  before  we 
describe  the  Gothic  style. 

DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Abacus. — The  upper  member  of  the  capital  Fiq.  7. 

of  a  column.  It  is  sometimes  square  and 
sometimes  curved,  forming  on  the  plan  seg- 
ments of  a  circle,  an  ornament  being  intro- 
duced in  their  centres.  In  Gothic  pillars  it 
has  a  great  variety  of  forms. 

Amjyhiprosti/lc. — A  building  having  a  por-  bacus. 

tico  at  both  ends. 

Amphitheatre. — A  theatre  of  an  elliptical  form,  or  in  other 
words,  a  double  theatre,  produced  by  building  two,  end  to  end. 

Ancones,  or  Trusses. — Ornaments  in  the  cornice  of  an  Ionic 
doorway,  resembling  medallions  placed  vertically. 

Annulet. — The  mouldings  at  the  lower  part  of  the  echinus 
in  Doric  capitals.  A  small  square  moulding  used  to  separate 
other  mouldings. 

Antes. — Square  pillars,  or  pilasters  attached  to  a  wall.  They 
have  capitals  different  from  those  of  the  columns  to  which 
they  are  attached. 

Apophyge. — The  small  facia  by  which  the  shaft  is  attached 
to  the  fillet  of  the  base. 

Apteral. — A  temple  which  is  built  without  columns  at  the  sides. 

Areastyle. — An  arrangement  of  columns  when  four  diameters 
are  allowed  between  them. 

Architrave. — The  lowest  member  of  the  entablature  ;  also, 
mouldings  round  doors  and  windows. 

Archivolt. — The  interior  face  of  an  arch,  between  the  imposts. 

Arris. — The  meeting  of  two  surfaces  producing  an  angle. 

Area. — An  open  space  within  a  building.  Fig.  8. 

Astragal. — A  semicircular  moulding.    '^^  ~ 

Attic. — A  small  height  of  pannelling  | 
above  the  cornice ;  also,  the  upper  story  of  I 
a  house,  when  the  walls  are  perpendicular.  Astragal. 

Balcony. — A  projection  from  the  face  of  a  wall  supported  by 
columns  or  consoles,  and  usually  surE?unded  by  a  balustrade. 

Balustur. — A  small  pillar,  the  form  of  which  may  be  al- 
tered at  pleasure ;  used  in  balustrades. 

Band. — A  moulding  with  a  square  profile. 

Bandelet. — A  very  narrow  moulding  of  the  same  form  as  a  band. 

Base. — That  part  of  the  column  on  which  the  shaft  restSi 
The  term  is  also  used  to  signify  the  lower  part  of  a  wall. 


.352  ARCHITECTURE. 

Battlement. — ^A  notched  or  indented  parapet.  Fig.  9. 

Blocking  Course. — A  course  of  masonry  "" 
above  a  cornice. 

Bracket. — A  projection  from  the  face  of  a  3 
wall  to  carry  sculpture,  or  support  some  weip^ht.-'"""*^'*?""''' ";'"'"'"'""'"* 

J         ^     .^        c  ■      ^         c  Battlement. 

Branches. — Ine  ribs  01  a  gromed  root. 

Calle. — A  twisted  moulding  representing  a  cable. 

Caissons. — Sunk  panels  in  ceilings,  or  in  soffits. 

Campana. — That  part  of  a  Corinthian  capital  on  which  the 
leaves  are  placed. 

Cantilevers. — Trusses  under  the  modil-  Fig.  10. 

lions  of  a  frieze. 

Capital. — That  part  of  a  column  which 
rests  on  the  shaft. 

Cartoicclies. — Modilhons  or  blocks,  sup- 
porting the  eaves  of  a  house. 

Casement. — The  frame  of  a  window  or 
light ;  also,  a  moulding  the  same  as  the  cartouches 

scotia. 

Cavetto. — ^A  hollow  moulding,  one-quarter  of  a  circle. 

Chxinnel. — ^A  canal  or  groove  sunk  in 
the  face  of  any  work.  fw.  11. 

Colonnade. — A  row   of  columns,    sup 


iyOionnaue. — j^.  luw    ui    uuiuuius,    auj^-  1 

porting  an  entablature.  \ 


Column. — A   round    pillar    having    a  cavetto. 

shaft  and  capital,  and  generally  a  base. 

Coping. — A  sloping  stone  on  the  top  of  a  wall  to  throw  of! 
rain-water. 

Corbel. — A  projection  from  the  face  of  a  wall  to  carry  a 
weight,  and  generally  ornamented. 

Cornice. — The  upper  division  of  an  entablature  .'omposed  of 
several  members,  and  varying  according  to  the  order. 

Corona. — A  large  square  member  of  a  cornice  between  the 
cymatium  and  bed-mouldings.  It  is  intended  to  protect  the 
parts  beneath  it,  and  has  a  considerable  ^^^  j2 

projection.      It  is  sometimes  called  the  1  1 

larmier,  but  more  frequently  the  drip.      ^\  ) 

Cyma-recta. — ^A  compound  moulding,  ' 


Hollow  in  the  upper,  round  in  the  lower  Cyma-recta. 

part.  FiQ.  13. 

Cyma-reversa. — A  moulding  the  re-  r '■ — '■ 

rerse  of  the  cyma-recta.  ^ — ,^_^ 

Cymatium. — The  upper  moulding  of  cyma-rcTetsa. 

4n  entablature. 

Dando,  or  Die. — The  plain  part  of  a  pedestal. 


QUESTIONS  ON 


Sbb 


Fig.  15. 


Echinus. 


Dentils.  —  Square,  projecting  blocks,  Fiq.h^ 

in  the  bed-mould  of  the  Ionic,  Corinth- 
ian, and  Composite  entablatures.  They 
are  so  called  from  a  fancied  resemblance  Dentils. 

to  a  row  of  teeth. 

Dodcastyle. — A  building  with  twelve  columns  in  front, 

Echinus. — An  egg-shaped  ornament 
in  the  Ionic  capital. 

Entablature. — The  uppermost  divis- 
ion of  a  column,  supported  by  the  shaft. 

Enstyle. — Two    and   a   quarter    di- 
mensions between  the  columns. 

Facade. — The  elevation  or  front  view  of  the  principal  froat 
of  any  building.  Fm.  ifi. 

Fascia^  or  Facia. — A  broad 
flat  member,  in  an  architrave, 
cornice,  or  pedestal. 

Fillet.  — =-  A  small  square 
member,  dividing  mouldings. 

Flutings.  —  Perpendicular 
channels  in  the  shaft  of  a 
column. 

Frieze. — The  middle  division 
of  an  entablature. 

Gahle. — The  triangular  ma- 
sonry or  wood- work  at  the  end ' 
of  a  roof.     Some  of  the  old  gable-ends  are  curiously  carved. 

Glyphs. — Vertical  channels  in  the  Doric 
frieze. 

Guttce. — Ornaments   resembling    drops, 
imder  the  mutules  of  the  Doric  entablature. 

Heptastyle. — A  building  with  seven  col- 
umns in  front. 

Hexastyle. — A  building  with  six  columns  in  front. 

Impost. — The  abacus  which  crowns  a  pilaster  or  pier,  and 
from  which  the  arch  springs ;  also,  the  capital  of  a  pilaster 
which  sustains  the  arch. 

Tntercolumniation. — The  dis- 
tance between  one  column  and 
another. 

Metope. — The   interval    be-     „^i, 
tween  the  triglyphs  in  a  Doric  "F^ 
frieze,  often  ornamented  with    | 
Bculptures. 

^  30* 


Gable. 


Fia.  17. 


P 


3 


55S§5§5 


Guttae. 


Fio.  18. 


Metope. 


354  ARCHITECTURE. 

Modillicn. — An  ornament  in  the  Corintliian  and  Compositt 
orders,  resembling  a  bracket. 

Mutule. — Small  block  ornaments,  under  the  corona  in  the 
Doric  order. 

Ovolo. — A  convex  moulding,  a  quar-  Fig.  19. 


ter  of    a  circle,  and  sometimes  called   r 

the  quarter  round.  V....^ '_ 

Parapet. — A  wall  about  breast-high, 
at  the  top  of  a  house,  or  on  a  bridge,  in- 
tended as  a  defence.     It  is  sometimes  ornamented,  and  some- 
times plain. 

Patero. — An  ornament  in  a  frieze,  resembling  a  goblet. 

Pedestal. — A  square  piece  of  masonry,  supporting  the  base 
of  a  column,  and  consisting  of  a  base,  die,  and  cornice. 

Pediment. — The  triangular  form  above  the  columns,  in  the 
front  and  back  of  a  building ;  also  the  same  over  windows  and  doors. 

Pentastyle. — A  portico  of  five  columns. 

Peripteral. — A  temple  having  columns  all  around  it. 

Pier. — A  soHd  'pilaster  or  column,  from  which  an  arch 
springs,  or  carrying  a  weight ;  also,  the  solid  mass  between  the 
doors  or  windows  of  a  building,  or  between  the  arches  of  a 
bridge. 

Pilaster. — A  flat  square  projection,  attached  to  a  wall.      * 

Pillar. — This  term  is  not  synonymous  with  the  woid  column. 
In  the  latter,  a  regular  and  almost  undeviating  proportion  is 
maintained  between  the  several  parts ;  but  in  the  former,  the 
same  arrangement  of  parts  is  not  adopted. 

Plat  Band. — A  square  member  with  a  projection  less  than 
either  the  height  or  breadth. 

Plinth. — A  sohd  mass  under  the  base  of  a  column. 

Podium. — A  running  pedestal,  supporting  a  series  of  columns 
around  a  building. 

Portico. — A  horizontal  projection  in  the  front  of  a  building, 
supported  by  columns. 

Rustic. — Stone  or  composition  work,  channelled  vertically 
and  horizontally. 

Scotia. — A  hollow  moulding,  chiefly  used  in  the  base  of  the 
Ionic  column. 

Scroll. — A  spiral ;  the  volute  of  an  Ionic  capital. 

Shaft. — That  part  of  a  column  between 
the  base  and  capital.  Fiq.  20. 

TetraUyle.-^A.    building    with    four  |  — ; 

lolumns  in  front.  Torus 

Torus. — A  semicu-cular  moulding. 


QUESTIONS  ON 


355 


Triglyphs. — The  vertical  channels 
in  a  Doric  frieze. 

Tympanum. — The  triangular  sur- 
face enclosed  by  the  pediment.  In 
the  ancient  temples,  it  was  frequently- 
decorated  with  sculptures. 

Vestibule. — A  large  hall,  or  pas- 
sage. 

Volutes. — The  spirals  upon  an  Io- 
nic capital. 


Fio.  21 


Triglyph. 


Before  proceeding  to  a  description  of  Gothic  architecture,  we 
give  the  alphabetical  list  of  the  terms  peculiarly  adapted  to  it, 
with  the  hope  that  this  arrangement  will  render  it  easy  to  con- 
tinue the  study  with  the  account  of  Gothic  architecture. 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  GOTHIC  AND  CHURCH  ARCHITEC- 
TURE. 


Aisles. — The  spaces  on  each  side  the  nave. 

•  Almery. — A  niche,  or  closet,  introduced  in 

the  walls  of  churches  or  cathedrals,   intended 

for  the  keeping  of  valuable  articles  belonging 

to  the  rehgious  service. 

Almonry. — The  building  in  which  alms  are 
distributed. 

Ambs. — A  pulpit,  or  raised  platform. 

Arch- Buttress,  or  Flying -Buttress. — 
An  arch  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
portmg,  or  appearing  to  support,  a  spire, 
or  one  springing  over  the  roof  of  an  aisle, 
and  abutting  against  the  wall  of  the  clere- 
story. 

Aspersorium. — The  holy-water  basin. 

Auditorium. — The  nave,  or  body  of  the 
church,  where  the  people  meet  for  wor- 


FiQ.  22. 


Baptistry. — ihe  place  in  which  the  rite 
of  baptism  is  performed. 

Bartizan. — A  turret  over  the  roof,  and 
within  the  parapet  of  a  building. 

Battlement. — An  indented  and  some- 
times perforated  parapet. 


Arch-Btttreas,  tx  Flyir^ -Buttna* 


356 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Fio 

24. 

(}((){()    ^   () 

(()(()(()(: 

"'¥ 

''in\|^i, 

Billet-Moulding. 
Fig. 25 


\ 


Bat/. — ^The  space  between  the  ribs  of  a 
groined  roof ;  also,  the  part  of  a  window  be- 
tween the  mulhons. 

£a^  Window. — ^A  projecting  window  ri- 
sing from  the  ground,  or  basement,  in  a 
semi-octagon,  semi-hexagon,  or  polygonal 
form. 

Belfry. — A  tower  provided  -with  bells. 

Benetier. — A  vessel  for  holy-water,  usually 
placed  at  the  entrance  of  a  church. 

Billet-Moulding. — Cylindrical  blocks,  placed 
at  a  short  but  equal  distance  from  each  other, 
in  a  hollow  moulding. 

Bass. — A  carved  ornament  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  ribs,  in  a  groined  roof. 

Brasses. — Brass  plates  let  into  the  pavement 
of  ecclesiastical  buildings,  over  or  near  tombs. 
All  of  these  have  an  engraving  of  some  sort, 
and  many  of  them  are  admirably  designed  and 
elaborately  engraven. 

Buttress. — A  projection  from  the  wall,  built 
between  the  windows  and  at  the  angles  of  a 
building,  having  the  double  purpose,  in  Gothic 
architecture,  of  strength  and  ornament.  They 
are  of  various  forms,  according  to  the  style  of 
architecture. 

Cable- Moulding. — A  moulding  used  in  Nor- 
man architecture,  and  deriving  its  name  from 
its  form,  resembling  a  cable,  or  large  rope. 

Canopy. -^Kn  ornamental  projection  over  — — ==: 
doors,  windows,  and  niches,  chiefly  introduced  //////y, 
in  the  decorated  and  perpendicular  English. 

Carol. — A  small  closet  in  a  cloister. 

Catharine- Wheel  Window. — A  circular  win- 
dow, usually  with  d  rich  radiating  tracery. 

Chapels. — Small  buildings  attached  to  cathe- 
drals and  large  churches.  Many  of  these  are 
executed  in  a  splendid  manner.  That  of  Henry 
VII.,  at  Westminster,  is  a  fine  example. 

Chantry. — A  small  chapel  at  the  side  of  a 
church. 

Choir. — The  space  eastward  of  the  cross  in 
churches  having  that  form,   and  between  the  nave  and  high 
•Itar. 


Buttress. 
Fig.  ^'i. 


Cable-Moulding. 


Fio.  27. 


Cancpy. 


QUESTIONS  ON 


357 


Fig. 


Cinquefoil 


Fig.  30. 


Chevron,  or  Zigzag. — ^A  moulding  character- 
istic of  Norman  buildinsrs. 


Cinquefoil. — An  ornament  representing  the  T^^i^^^:^^ 
leaves  of  a  flower,  or  leaf,  used  in  Gothic  archi-  chevron,  or  zigzag 
tecture. 

Clerestory. — The  upper  story  or  row  of  windows  in     ^^2^- 
a  Gothic  church.  ^^yl  ' 

Cloisters. — Covered  passage-ways  to  different  parts  ^  ^ 
of  an  ecclesiastical  building. 

Crocket. — An  ornament  representing  a 
bunch  of  flowers,  or  foliage,  chiefly  used  at 
the  angles  of  pinnacles  and  canopies. 

Crypt. — A  vaulted  chamber  under  a 
church,  generally  under  the  eastern  end ; 
and  used  either  as  a  place  of  sepulture,  an 
oratoiy,  or  baptistry. 

Cusps. — The  ornaments  at  the  points  of 
the  tracery  in  Gothic  windows  ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  the  small  arcs  which  the  or- 
naments terminate. 

Donjon,  or  Keep. — A  massive  tower  in 
ancient  castles,  usually  in  the  centre,  to 
which  the  garrison  retired  as  their  last  de- 
fence, when  the  outworks  were  taken. 

Dovetail- Moulding. — A  character- 
istic Norman  moulding. 

Dungeon. — The  vault  for  prisoners, 
usually  the  basement  of  the  donjon. 

Embrasure,  or  Crenelle. — A  splayed 
opening  in  a  wall ;  an  opening  in  a  Dovetail  Moulding, 

battlement. 

Feathering,  or  Foliation. — Small  arcs,  or  foils,  in  the  tracery 
of  Gothic  windows.  According  to  the  numbers  uniting,  they 
are  called  trefoils,  quatrefoils,  cinquefoils,  or  multifoils. 

Finial. — The  ornament  which  crowns  a  pinnacle  or  canopy. 

Font. — The  vase  used  for  water,  in  baptism. 

Goblet. — A  small  gable  in  screens,  etc. 

Gargoyle. — A  projecting  water-spout,  gen- 
erally ornamented  with  the  head  of  ^  man,  a 
monster,  or  some  appropriate  emblem. 

Groin. — The  lines  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  two  or  more  vaults. 

Hatched- Moulding. — A  moulding  used  in 
Norman   architecture,  with  ornaments  of  a 


Crocket 


Fig.  31. 


/ZAyy^X-yZXy 


Gargoyto. 


358 


ARCHITECTURE, 


Fig.  34. 


triangular  form,  and  having  the  appearance  of  F  g.  33 

being  cut  with  a  hatchet.  ''y\^\^\^\^\^\.^ 

Hovel. — A  niche,  or  canopy,  for  a  statue. 

Jnhe. — A  gallery,  or  rood-loft,  over  the  choir, 
to  the  front  of  which  the  pulpit  was  generally  Hatched-Mouiding. 
attached. 

Kee'p. — The  most  elevated  and  innermost  tower  of  a  castle. 

Knob. — The  boss  at  the  crowning  of  i  groin. 

Label,  or  Hood- Moulding. — The  outer  moulding  over  doers 
er  windows. 

Lavatory. — A  stone  basin  attached  to  the  altar,  used  by  the 
Romish  priests  dm'ing  mass,  to  dip  or  wash  their  hands  in. 

Lettern,  or  Lectern. — A  reading-desk,  commonly  of  brass,  and 
of  a  fanciful  form. 

Lozenge- Moulding. — A  moulding  used  in  Norman  architecture 
particularly. 

Machicolations. — The  per- 
pendicular openings  left  be- 
tween the  corbels  of  a  battle- 
ment,   over     gateways    and 

doors,  intended  to  afford  fa- 

cilities   for   annoying   assail-  Lozenge-MouWing. 

ants. 

Merlon. — The  solid  part  of  an  embattled  parapet. 

Misereres. — Shelving  seats,  in  the  stalls  of  churches  and  ca- 
thedrals. 

Mullions. — The  upright  shafts  dividing  a  window  into  sepa- 
rate parts,  or  lights. 

Nave. — The  central  division  of  a  church  between  the  aisles. 

Oratory. — A  private  chapel  for  prayer. 

Oriel. — A  window  projecting  from  a 
wall 

Panel. — A  smaii  compartment  enclosed 
with  mouldings,  and  generally  decorated 
with  an  ornament  or  sculpture. 

Pendent. — An  ornament  hanging  from  a 
roof. 

Perclws. — Brackets  in  churches  for  images 
or  candlesticks. 

Pix. — The  shrine  to  hold  the  Tiost,  or  con-  oriei. 

secrated  wafer ;  in  the  shape  of  a  candle- 
stick, surmounted  by  a  circular  glass  case,  with  gilt  rays  diverg- 
ing from  it. 

Porch. — A  small  covered  entrance  into  a  buildmg. 


Fig.  35. 


QUESTIONS  Olt 


359 


Pinnacle. — A  small  spire  or  pointed  termination  to  ^'^f-  3* 
towers,  turrets,  and  buttresses,  generally  with  four  ^'^'- 
sides,  and  more  or  less  ornamented. 

Quatrefoil. — An  ornament  representing  four 
leaves  of  a  flower,  formed  within  a  circle. 
Rood. — A  cross  with  a  fio-ure  of  the  Saviour 


Fio.  37. 


Pinnacle 


FiQ.  38. 


on  it. 

Rood- Loft. — A  gallery,  generally  over  the  .,„ 
Quatrefoil.  g(,j,ggjj^  Qj.  ^^  i\^Q  entrance  of  the  choir,  in  which  M 
a  rood  was  in  former  times  placed. 

Spire. — The  pyramidal  structure  crowning  a  tower  or 
turret. 

Siiandril. — The  triangular  space  between  an  arch  and 
the  right  angle  above  it. 

Stalls. — Elevated  seats  on  the  side  of  a 
choir  in  cathedrals,  with  canopies  over 
them  appropriated  for  ecclesiastics. 

Stancheon. — The  upright  bar,  or  mul- 
lion,  which  divides  a  window  into  bays. 

Steeple. — A  tower  rising  above  the  roof 
of  a  church. 

Tabernacle. — A  stall,  or  niche,  detached 
from  the  wall,  with  a  canopy  above  it. 

Tablet. — A  projecting  moulding,  more 
particularly  that  under  a  window. 

Transept. — That  part  of  a  church  or  cathedral  which  runs 
north  and  south,  forming  the  arms  of  a  cross. 

Tracery. — The  framework  and  oraament  in  the  head  of  a 
window  or  screen. 

Transom. — The  horizontal  bar  dividing  lights  or  panes. 

Trefoil. — An  ornament  representing  three  leaves       Fio.  39. 
of  a  flower,  formed  within  a  circle. 

Tudor  Flower. — An  ornament  much  used  in  the 
time  of  the  last  two  Henrys,  (who  were  Tudors,) 
and  frequently  employed  for  open  parapets. 

Undercroft. — The  crypt,  or  vault  of  a  church. 

Weepers. — ^The  statues  of  grief,  at  the  base  of  a 
tomb. 

Zigzag, — See  Chevron. 


Spandril 


TrefoiL 


SCO 


ARCHITECTURE 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

How  is  Gothic  architecture  distinguished  from  the  Roman 
and  Grecian  ?  By  the  form  of  the  arch,  the  irregularity  of  de- 
tail, and  the  want  of  constant  proportions  or  decorations  in  the 
columns.  In  what  other  respect  do  they  diflfer?  By  the 
lines :  in  Grecian  architecture  they  are  nearly  all  straight ;  in 
the  Gothic  they  are  nearly  all  curved.  What  is  the  difference 
of  opinion  about  the  origin  of  Gothic  architecture  ?  There  have 
been  so  many  different  opinions  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
decide  which  has  most  claims  to  our  belief.  The  term  Gothic, 
or  early  English,  as  it  is  now  more  frequently  called,  is  said  by 
some  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Ci-usaders,  and  by  them 
procured  from  the  Saracens.  Others  assert  it  was  brought  by 
the  Moors  into  Spain.  What  remains  are  there  which  would 
give  color  to  this  belief  ?  There  are  some  Gothic  arches  in  Pal- 
estine, but  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by  Europeans. 
Dr.  Milnor  accounts  for  the  pointed  arch  on  the  supposition 
that  the  form  was  derived  from  the  intersection'  of  two  semi- 
circular arches.  What  styles  should  we  remark  on  previous  to 
speaking  of  the  varieties  of  Gothic  architecture  ?  Of  the  Saxon 
and  Norman,  which  immediately  preceded  the  Gothic.  Are 
*^^here  many  remains  of  the  Saxon  buildings  ?  No,  there  are 
very  few,  and  those  so  dilapidated  that  it  is  difficult  to  form 
any  precise  opinion  with  regard  to  their  style.  Of  what  nature 
are  those  which  now  remain  ?  Only  huge  square  towers,  with- 
out windows,  battlements,  or  decorations  of  any  kind ;  they  are 
much  larger  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  Of  what  form  were 
the  Saxon  churches  ?  They  consisted  of  a  rectangular  nave, 
with  a  portico  at  the  western  end ;  the  eastern  end  was  similar 
in  form  to  the  place  of  the  tribune  in  the  Basihca,  and 
the  nave  was  divided  into  three  parts  by  two  arcades,  above 
which  were  galleries.  Of  what  form  were  the  arches  ?  They 
were  semicircular,  and  rose  immediately  from  the  capitals  of  the 
columns.  The  shafts  of  these  were  very  massive,  and  generally 
cylindrical,  though  other  forms  were  used.  Which  are  the  best 
examples  of  the  Norman  style  in  England  ?  In  London,  the 
vestibule  of  the  Temple  church,  the  chapel  of  the  Tower,  and 
parts  of  St.  Bartholomew's,  Smithfield ;  Cherley  church,  in 
Derbyshire,  Iffley  church,  and  the  nave  of  Rochester  cathedral. 
What  others  are  mentioned  as  particularly  worthy  of  notice  ? 
The  vestibule  of  the  Chapter-house  at  Bristol,  and  the  staircase 
leading  to  the  registry  of  Canterbury  cathedral.     Where  are 


QUESTIONS  ON  361 

there  other  specimens  of  Norman  architecture  ?  The  churches 
of  some  parts  of  Germany  and  France,  erected  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  What  is  the  Norman  style  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  ?  The  Romanesque,  or  Lombard,  and  to  have 
received  its  distinct  and  permanent  character  about  the  year 
1000.  How  are  the  peculiar  characters  described  by  Mr. 
WheAvell  ?  "  The  pier  is  a  column  or  a  mass  of  wall,  not  broken 
into  shafts  or  vertical  parts ;  the  arch  is  cut  square  in  the  wall, 
with  perhaps  only  one  square  face,  but  with  no  obHque  group 
of  mouldings,  nor  any  correspondence  between  the  parts  of  the 
archi\olt  and  the  pier — the  former  being,  in  fact,  an  architrave; 
and  the  window  above  is  a  perforation  in  the  wall,  with  no 
necessary  relation  to  the  members  below."  How  were  the  Nor- 
man churches  usually  erected  ?  A  square  tower  was  usually 
built  at  the  western  end,  which  was  the  principal  entrance. 
They  were  frequently  ornamented  with  tiers  of  arches,  occasion- 
ally intersecting  each  other,  though  commonly  separate.  When 
did  Gothic  architecture  come  into  use  in  England  ?  At  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Second. 
How  is  this  style  divided  ?  Into  three  classes,  or  orders,  if  they 
may  be  so  called ;  the  early  English,  the  decorated  English,  and 
the  perpendicular  English.  When  was  the  second  introduced  ? 
In  the  reign  of  Edward  the  First,  in  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century ;  and  the  third  was  introduced  at  the  close  of 
the  same  century,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  the  Second.  How 
is  the  Gothic  characterized  ?  By  the  pointed  arch ;  by  pillars 
which  are  extended  so  as  to  lose  all  trace  of  classical  propor- 
tions ;  by  shafts  which  are  clustered  together,  of  different  thick- 
nesses, side  by  side.  What  further  pecuHarities  has  it  ?  Its 
mouldings,  cornices,  and  capitals,  have  no  longer  the  classical 
shapes  and  members ;  square  edges,  rectangular  surfaces,  pilas- 
ters, and  entablatures,  disappear ;  the  elements  of  building  be- 
come slender,  and  assume  forms  implying  ease  and  variety. 
What  further  ?  The  openings  become  the  principal  parts  of  the 
wall,  and  the  other  portions  are  subordinate  to  them.  The 
pier  is,  in  the  most  complete  examples,  a  collection  of  vertical 
shafts,  surrounding  a  pillar,  the  edges  of  which  are  no  longer 
square.  What  peculiarity  has  the  archivolt  ?  It  consists  of 
members  corresponding  more  or  less  to  the  members  of  the  pier, 
and  consequently  is  composed  of  a  series  of  rounds  and  hollows, 
and  loses  all  traces  of  its  original  rectangular  section.  How  is 
the  early  English  distinguished  ?  By  its  pointed  arches  and 
long  narrow  windows,  without  mullions.  When  the  sty^'e  was 
first  introduced,  how  was  it  mixed  ?     It  was  mixed  and  debased 

81 


362  ARCHITECTURE. 

by  tlie  Norman ;  the  buildings  were  massive,  and  tlie  sliarp, 
lancet-shaped  windows  were  formed  in  rows,  with  rude  colum- 
nar piers  of  the  former  period  between  them.  Where  is  there 
an  example  of  this  ?  In  Romsey  church,  Hampshire.  What 
was  the  improvement  after  ?  As  the  second  period  advanced, 
the  buildings  became  more  florid,  and  assumed  much  of  the 
character  of  the  decorated  English ;  the  lancet  windows  and 
arches  being  carried  by  clustered  columns  -vvith  rich  capitals  and 
moulded  bases :  the  nave  of  Lincoln  cathedral,  and  the  North- 
ampton cross,  erected  to  the  memory  of  Queen  Eleanor  by 
Edward  the  First,  are  examples.  What  marks  the  best  speci- 
mens of  the  first  period  ?  Neither  mullions  nor  tracery  are  in- 
troduced. The  towers  are  generally  surmounted  by  a  spire ; 
flying-buttresses,  and  buttresses  in  diminishing  stages  are  also 
characteristics.  Which  is  the  finest  specimen  of  early  English 
in  that  country  ?  Sahsbury  cathedral,  which,  unlike  any  other 
building  except  Bath  abbey,  was  commenced  and  finished  in  the 
same  style  ;  it  is  a  perfect  model  of  the  architecture  of  the  first 
period.  What  other  fine  specimens  are  there  ?  Beverly  min- 
ster, the  fronts  of  Ely  and  Lincoln  cathedrals,  the  transept  of 
York  minster,  and  a  great  part  of  Westminster,  are  of  the  same 
period.  How  are  lancet- windows  sometimes  combined  ?  Two, 
or  more,  are  sometimes  placed  together,  and  the  division  between 
them  is  so  small  that  they  appear  as  one.  There  is  a  splendid 
example  of  this  in  the  Chapter-house  at  Christ- church,  Oxford. 
When  did  the  second  period  of  Gothic  architecture  commence, 
and  how  Ions:  did  it  continue  ?  From  the  reicjn  of  Edward  the 
First,  at  the  beginning,  to  the  reign  of  Richard  the  Second,  at 
the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century.  How  is  it  characterized  ? 
By  the  form  and  tracery  of  its  large  windows ;  the  arches  are 
divided  by  mullions,  and  the  tracery  is  thrown  into  graceful 
curves,  forming  circles,  and  other  curved  figures.  What  is  an- 
other peculiarity?  Triangular  canopies,  crotch eted  and  finish- 
ed, are  also  characteristic.  What  is  another  ?  The  buttresses 
are  singularly  various,  for  they  sometimes  gradually  diminish 
in  size,  and  sometimes  are  the  same  throughout;  sometimes 
they  finish  under  the  cornice,  and  again  they  are  carried  through 
and  surmounted  by  pinnacles.  Buttresses  with  triangular  heads 
are  very  characteristic.  What  of  the  arch  ?  The  form  of  the 
arch  cannot  always  be  depended  on  ;  but  the  most  characteris- 
tic is  that  formed  on  an  equilateral  triangle.  What  of  the  pin- 
nacles ?  The  pinnacles  are  generally  square,  and  ornamented 
with  crotchets  and  finials.  AVhat  of  the  spires?  The  spires. 
When  introduced,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  earlier  period,  but 


QUESTIONS  ON  363 

more  enriched  ;  the  parapets  are  pierced,  or  embattled.  Whicli 
are  the  best  specimens  in  England  of  the  decorated  or  perfect 
English  ?  The  nave  of  York  minster,  Beverly  minster,  and  the 
interior  of  Exeter  cathedral.  When  did  the  third  period  of 
Gothic  architecture,  or  perpendicular  English,  commence  ?  At 
the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Describe  the  characteris- 
tics. The  muUions  of  the  windows  and  the  ornamental  pannel- 
ings  run  in  parallel  Hnes,  and  form  a  complete  distinction  from 
the  last  style.  From  this  it  takes  its  name  of  perpendicular 
English.  What  objections  are  there  to  this  name?  Some 
writers  object  to  the  term,  as  it  gives  no  idea  of  the  increased 
expansion  of  the  vfindows,  nor  of  the  gorgeous  fan-like  tracery 
of  the  vaultings,  nor  of  the  heraldic  description  of  the  enrich- 
ments, which  peculiarly  distinguish  this  period.  What  of  the 
arch  ?  The  arch  is  generally  formed  of  the  segments  of  elhp- 
ses,  and  is  consequently  struck  from  four  centres.  What  of  the 
doors  ?  The  doors,  whatever  the  form  of  their  arched  heads 
may  be,  are  inscribed  in  a  square  frame,  with  spandrils.  The 
ribs  of  the  groined  ceilings  are  profusely  decorated  with  rich 
tracery.  What  is  another  ornament  peculiar  to  this  style? 
The  figure  of  an  angel  with  expanded  wings,  supporting  a  shield, 
or  as  a  corbel,  or  a  row  of  them  as  a  cornice.  What  also  oc- 
curs ?  The  rose  and  portculHs  of  Henry  the  Seventh  also  very 
frequently  occurs ;  the  ornament  called  the  Tudor  flower,  re- 
sembling an  oak  or  strawberry  leaf,  is  also  frequently  found  as 
a  finish  to  the  cornice  of  rich  screen-work,  or  over  niches,  a^  in 
St.  Mary's  church,  Oxford.  Which  are  among  the  beautiful 
examples  in  England  ?  Among  the  many  beautiful  examples 
of  perpendicular  English,  or  florid  Gothic,  may  be  mentioned 
the  front  of  Westminster  hall,  St.  George's  chapel  at  Windsor, 
Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at  Westminster,  and  King's  College 
chapel,  Cambridge.  What  of  the  Gothic  buildings  of  the  pres- 
ent day  ?  They  are  for  the  most  part  very  imperfect  specimens 
of  the  style,  and  too  often  we  find  the  characteristics  of  two,  if 
not  of  three  styles,  blended  together.  Is  this  a  good  style  ? 
No ;  as  well  might  the  architect  place  a  Corinthian  capital  on  a 
Doric  shaft,  as  attempt  to  unite  the  characters  and  ornaments 
of  the  Gothic  style  ;  and  yet,  from  modern  buildings,  one  might 
almost  imagine  that  nothing  was  necessary  in  designing  a  Goth- 
ic church  or  house,  but  to  make  someth'yig  very  different  from 
the  Roman  and  Grecian. 


304  HERALDRY. 

QUESTIONS 
ON    HERALDRY, 


What  is  Heraldry  ?  It  is  tlie  science  which  teaches  how  to 
blazon,  or  explain  in  proper  terms  all  that  belongs  to  coats-of- 
arms  ;  and  how  to  marshal,  or  dispose  regularly  on  a  field,  or 
shield,  as  the  space  (Fig.  No.  1)  is  called  on  which  the  arms 
of  a  gentleman  or  nobleman  are  placed,  or  delineated.  Is 
Heraldry  of  ancient  origin?  Yes,  for  we  find  from  Homer, 
Virgil,  and  Ovid,  that  the  ancient  heroes  had  difi'erent  figures 
on  their  shields,  by  which  their  persons  were  distinctly  known ; 
and  Alexander  the  Great,  desirous  to  honor  those  of  his  cap- 
tains and  soldiers  who  had  done  any  glorious  action,  granted 
them  certain  badges  to  be  borne  on  their  armor,  pennons,  or 
banners,  which  should  distinguish  them  from  others ;  and  these 
were  handed  down  to  their  children,  and  any  other  person  for- 
bade to  adopt  them.  Were  not  kingdoms  and  states,  in  the 
earlier  ages,  distinguished  by  particular  symbols  or  signs  ?  Yes, 
the  Egyptians  bore  an  ox,  the  Athenians  an  owl,  the  Goths  a 
bear,  the  Romans  an  eagle,  the  Franks  a  lion,  and  the  Saxons  a 
hor^e,  which  still  forms  a  portion  of  the  arms  of  England. 
Who  first  among  the  more  modern  nations  estabhshed  family 
arms,  or  hereditary  marks  of  honor?  The  emperor  Henry 
rOiseleur,  or  the  Fowler,  who  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  the  West  in  920  ;  and  this  science  is  better  understood  and 
observed  to  this  day  in  Germany  than  elsewhere.  Do  we  not 
hear  of  it  earlier  than  this  ?  Yes,  Charlemagne  and  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  as  early  as  800,  digested  it  into  an  art  and  subjected 
it  to  rules.  What  does  Menestrier  assert  with  regard  to  tour- 
naments and  arms?  He  says  that  with  tournaments  came 
**  coa^s-of-arms,"  which  were  a  sort  of  livery  made  up  of  lists, 
fillets,  or  narrow  pieces  of  stuflf  of  different  colors,  displayed 
across  the  shield  borne  by  the  knights  in  those  encounters  ;  and 
from  these  came  the  fess,  the  bend,  the  pale,  etc.,  which  were 
the  orio-inal  charges  of  family  arms,  and  which  will  be  described 
in  the  plates.  What  may  be  concluded  from  this?  That 
Heraldry,  like  most  human  inventions,  was  insensibly  introduced 
and  established ;  and  that  after  having  been  rude  and  unsel^led 
for  ages,  it  was  at  last  methodized,  perfected,  and  fixed,  by^the 


QUESTIONS    ON  365 

crusades  and  tournaments.  Why  were  these  marks  of  honor 
called  "  arms  ?"  From  their  being  principally  worn  in  war  and 
in  tournaments,  by  mihtary  men,  who  had  them  engraved,  em- 
bossed, or  depicted,  on  shields,  targets,  banners,  or  other  mar- 
tial implements.  Why  are  they  also  called  "  coats-o(-arms  V* 
From  the  custom  of  embroidering  them  en  the  coats  worn  over 
their  armor,  as  the  heralds  do  at  thfs  day.  What  are  Heralds  f 
It  is  a  term  supposed  to  be  derived  from  *'IIeer,^*  an  army,  and 
"  Health''  a  champion.  The  principal  employment  of  heralds,  in 
early  times,  was  to  demand  redress  of  injuries  from  foreign 
powers,  carry  messages  of  amity  or  defiance,  and  proclaim  war 
or  peace  ;*  whence  they  came  also  to  record  or  emblazon  ar- 
morial bearings,  and  marshal  or  arrange  great  public  ceremo- 
nies. When  were  they  first  introduced  into  England  ?  In  the 
days  of  chivalry ;  they  were  introduced  from  France,  where  they 
were  in  high  repute,  as  also  in  Rome,  and  they  soon  became 
equally  honored  in  England  and  Scotland.  What  was  the  chief 
of  them  called  ?  Eng-of-arms,  and  was  crowned  at  his  instal- 
lation to  office  by  the  sovereign  himself ;  and  as  the  sovereigns 
and  lords  had  their  armiger,  or  armor-bearer,  so  every  herald 
had  his  signifer,  or  ancient,  or,  as  he  was  called  from  the  French, 
*' pursuivant," — that  is,  follower,  or  attendant.  When  were  the 
Heralds  of  England  incorporated  into  a  college?  By  King 
Richard  the  Second,  in  1450.  The  Earl-marshal  of  England 
is  the  superior  of  the  college,  and  has  the  right  of  appointing 
the  members  of  whom  it  consists,  viz.,  three  kings-at-arms,  six 
heralds-at-arms,  and  four  pursuivants.  The  kings  are  called 
Garter,  Clarencieux,  and  Norroy.  By  whom  were  these  insti- 
tuted and  created  ?  Garter  by  King  Henry  V.,  to  attend  on 
the  order  of  the  garter.  His  color  is  hlue ;  that  of  the  provin- 
cial kings,  as  Clarencieux  and  Norroy  are  called,  is  purple 
Clarencieux  was  ordained  by  King  Edward  TV.,  to  arrange  pro- 
cessions, etc.,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  Trent ;  and  Norroy 
to  the  same  ofiice  north  of  that  river.  What  are  the  six  heralds 
called  ?  They  are  styled  of  York,  Lancaster,  Chester,  Windsor, 
Richmond,  and  Somerset.  What  are  the  pursuivants  called  ? 
Blue-Mantle,  Rouge-Croix,  Rouge-Dragon,  and  Port-Cullis; 
they  bear  their  symbols  on  their  coats.  The  meetings  of  the 
Heralds'  college  are  called  chapters,  and  matters  are  determined 
therein  by  a  majority  of  voices.     What  is  their  employment  at 

*  For  tho  manner  in  which  these  things  were  conducted,  the  ceremoniea 
attending  the  introduction  of  a  herald,  etc.,  the  student  is  referred  to  tha 
admirable  description  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  "  Quentin  Durward,"  where 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  sends  his  herald  to  Louis  XI.  of  France. 

31* 


366  HERALDRY. 

tlie  present  time,  and  how  are  they  paid?  They  arrange  all 
processions  and  ceremonies  attending  royal  funerals,  coronations, 
etc. ;  and  each  receives  a  salary  from  the  crown.  In  the  Her- 
alds' office  is  kept  a  register  of  all  the  coats-of-arms  of  the  royal 
family,  the  nobihty,  and  gentry  of  England ;  and  any  person 
having  a  right  by  birth  to  a  coat-of-arms,  by  proving  his  ances- 
try and  name,  may  obtain  a  correct  one,  shodd  he  not  have  one 
in  possession,  by  applying  at  the  Heralds'  office.  While  a 
herald  or  pursuivant  has  authority,  should  he  see  the  coat-of- 
arms  of  any  family  emblazoned  on  a  carriage,  etc.  belonging  to 
a  person  not  entitled  to  bear  it,  to  erase  it,  wherever  met  with. 
How  many  kings-of-arms  are  there  in  Scotland  ?  Only  one, 
called  "  Xyon,"  from  the  cognizance  of  Scotland  f  and  as  early 
as  1371,  at  the  coronation  of  Robert  II.,  we  find  Lyon  king-at- 
arms  called  in,  with  attendant  heralds ;  and  indeed  it  would 
seem  that  heralds  are  of  greater  antiquity  in  Scotland  than  in 
England.  How  are  arms  distinguished  ?  By  different  names, 
to  denote  the  causes  of  their  bearing  ;  such  as  arms  of  Dominion, 
of  Pretension,  of  Concession,  of  Community,  of  Patronage,  of 
Family,  of  AlHance,  of  Succession.  Describe  the  first.  Arms 
of  Dominion,  or  Sovereignty,  are  those  which  emperors,  kings, 
and  sovereign  states  constantly  bear,  and  which  are,  as  it 
were,  attached  to  the  territories,  kingdoms,  and  provinces  they 
possess.  Thus  the  three  lions  are  the  arms  of  England,  the 
fleur-de-lis  those  of  France,  etc.  Describe  the  second.  Those 
of  Pretension  are  those  of  kingdoms,  territories,  provinces,  etc., 
which  a  prince  or  lord  has  some  claim  to,  and  which  he  adds 
to  his  own,  although  these  kingdoms,  etc.  are  possessed  by  a 
foreign  prince,  or  other  lord.  Thus  the  kings  of  England  have 
quartered  the  arms  of  France  with  their  own  ever  since  Edward 
the  Third  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  France,  in  1330,  as  the 
son  of  Isabella,  sister  to  Charles  le  Beau,  who  died  without 
issue.  Describe  the  third.  Arms  of  Concession,  or  augmenta- 
tion of  honor,  are  either  entire  arms,  or  else  one  or  more  figures, 
granted  by  princes  as  a  reward  for  some  extraordinary  service. 
Thus  we  read  that  Robert  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  allowed 
the  Earl  of  Wintoun's  ancestor  to  bear  in  his  coat-of-arms  a 
crown  supported  by  a  sword,  to  show  that  he  and  the  clan  Sea- 
ton,  of  which  he  was  the  head,  supported  his  tottering  crown 
by  their  swords  ;  and  Queen  Anne  granted  to  Sir  Cloudesley 
Shovel,  rear-admiral  of  England,  a  cheveron  between  two  fleur- 
de-lis,  in  chief,  and  a  crescent  in  base,  to  denote  three  great  vic- 
tories which  he  had  obtained  over  the  French  and  Turks.  De- 
scribe the  fpm-th.     Arms  of  Community  are  those  of  bishoprics. 


QUESTIOJNS    Ox\  367 

cities,  universities,  etc.,  which  belong  to  the  p.ace,  whoeva*  may 
be  at  their  head.  Describe  the  fifth.  Arms  of  Patronage  are 
such  as  governors  of  provinces,  lords  of  manors,  patrons  of  bene- 
fices, etc.,  add  to  their  family  arms,  as  a  token  of  their  superi- 
ority, rights,  and  jurisdiction.  These  arms  have  introduced  into 
Heraldry  castles,  gates,  wheels,  ploughs,  rakes,  etc.  Describe 
the  sixth.  Arms  of  Family,  or  paternal  arms,  are  those  which 
belong  to  one  particular  family,  and  which  no  other  persons 
have  a  right  to  assume.  Describe  the  seventh,  .^rms  of  Al- 
liance are  those  which  families,  or  private  persons,  take  up  and 
join  to  their  own,  to  show  the  alliances  they  have  contracted  by 
marriage.  This  sort  of  arms  are  impaled,  or  borne  in  an 
''escutcheon  of  pretence,^'  by  those  who  have  married  iieiresses. 
Describe  the  eighth.  Arms  of  Succession  are  such  as  are  taken 
up  by  those  who  inherit  certain  estates,  or  manors,  either  by 
will,  entail,  or  donation,  and  which  they  either  impale  or  quar- 
ter with  their  own  arms.  These  are  the  eight  classes  under 
which  arms  are  generally  arranged ;  but  there  is  a  sort  which 
blazoners,  or  those  who  paint  the  coat-of-arms,  call  assumptive 
arms ;  being  those  which  are  assumed  from  mere  caprice  or 
fancy,  without  any  right  so  to  do.  This  is  considered  a  great 
abuse  of  Heraldry,  and  is  only  allowed  in  Britain,  or  the  United 
States  ;  and  never  permitted  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

What  do  we  next  proceed  to  ?  The  escutcheons,  tinctures, 
charges,  and  ornaments.  What  is  the  Escutcheon  ?  It  is  the 
shield  on  which  the  figures  which  make  up  a  coat-of-arms  are 
represented,  as  seen  in  Fig.  1.  (See  plates.)  These  marks  of 
distinction  were  originally  put  on  bucklers  or  shields,  before 
they  were  placed  on  banners,  flags,  etc. ;  they  have  been,  and 
still  are,  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the  usages  of  dif- 
ferent times  and  nations.  WTiat  was  the  ancient  form  ?  Some 
were  almost  like  a  horse-shoe,  others  triangular ;  sometimes  it 
had  seven  sides :  the  first  of  this  shape  is  said  to  have  been  used 
by  the  famous  triumvir.  Marc  Antony.  That  of  knights  Ian- 
nereis,  now  called  Baronets^  was  square  like  a  banner.  How 
are  modern  escutcheons  generally  formed  ?  Those  of  the  Ital- 
ians, particularly  ecclesiastics,  are  generally  oval ;  but  among 
the  English  they  are  generally  formed  as  Fig.  1.  How  are 
the  escutcheons  of  unmarried  women  and  widows  formed ! 
In  the  shape  of  a  lozenge.  (See  Fig.  2.)  How  do  amorists 
distinguish  the  several  points  or  parts  of  nn  escutcheon  ?  By 
dividing  them  into  several  parts,  as  described  here.  A  is  the 
dexter  chief;  .5  the  precise  middle  chief;  O  the  sinister  chief ; 
D  the  honor  point ;  £J  the  fess  point ;  F  the  nombril  pomt ; 


368 


HERALDRY. 


ABC 


IL 


t 


g     I 


G  the  dexter  base ;  H  the  middle  pre- 
cise base ;  and  /  the  sinister  base.  It 
is  very  necessary  to  remember  these 
points,  as  arms  are  described  by  them ; 
as,  for  instance,  "a  hon  in  dexter  chief," 
**  a  fleur-de-Hs  in  sinister  chief,"  "  three 
martlets  in  dexter  base,"  etc. ;  you 
would  understand  that  a  lion  is  placed 
where  the  letter  A  is  in  the  shield,  etc. ; 
always  remembering  that  the  dexter 
side  of  the  escutcheon  is  opposite  the  left 
hand  of  the  person  who  looks  at  it ;  the 
sinister  opposite  the  right  hand.  What  is  meant  by  the  tinctures 
of  a  coat-of-arms  ?  The  difference  of  color  of  Jie  shields  and 
their  hearings,  or  what  is  drawn  on  them.  How  many  of  these 
are  there  ?  According  to  French  heralds,  only  seven,  of  which 
two  are  metals,  and  the  other  five  colors.  What  are  these  ? 
The  metals  are  gold  and  silver ;  but  these,  as  well  as  the  colors, 
are  always  known  by  their  French  names  in  heraldry :  thus, 
or,  ofrgent,  azure,  gules,  vert,  purpure,  and  sable — gold,  silver, 
blue,  red,  green,  purple,  and  black.  When  natural  objects  are 
depicted  on  the  shield,  they  retain  their  own  colors,  and  are 
then  expressed  by  the  word  propre.  Are  there  others  besides 
these  ever  used  ?  The  English  writers  allow  two  others ; 
orange,  termed  Tenny,  and  blood-color,  called  Sanguine.  But 
these  two  are  rarely  to  be  found  in  Enghsh  armorial  bearings. 
How  are  these  colors  represented  in  engravings  and  drawings 
when  not  colored  ?  By  dots  and  lines,  as  shown  in  the  plates. 
They  are  the  invention  of  the  ingenious  Silvester  de  Petra  Sancta, 
an  Italian  author  of  the  seventeenth  century.  How  is  this  done  ? 
Gold,  or  or,  by  dots,  (Fig.  3,  Plate  II. ;)  silver,  or  argent,  needs  no 
mark,  and  is  therefore  left  plain,  (Fig.  4  ;)  blue,  or  azure,  by  hori- 
zontal lines,  (Fig.  5  ;)  red,  or  gules,  by  perpendicular  lines,  (Fig. 
6  ;)  green,  or  vert,  by  diagonal  lines  from  the  dexter  chief  to  the 
sinister  base  points,  (Fig.  V  ;)  purple,  or  purpure,  from  the  sin- 
ister chief  to  the  dexter  base  points,  (Fig.  8 ;)  black,  or  sable, 
by  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  crossing  each  other,  (Fig. 
9  ;)  orange,  or  tenny,  from  the  sinister  chief  to  the  dexter  base 
points,  traversed  by  horizontal  lines,  (Fig.  10 ;)  bloody,  or  san- 
guine, by  lines  crossing  each  other  diagonally  from  dexter  to 
sinister,  and  from  sinister  to  dexter,  (Ftg.  11.)  What  is  said 
of  Furs  in  Heraldry  ?  Furs  represent  the  hairy  skins  of  certain 
beasts,  prepared  for  the  doublings  or  linings  of  robes  and  gar- 
ments of  state ;  and  as  shields  were  anciently  covered  with  furred 


QUESTIONS  ON  369 

skins,  they  are  used  in  Heraldry  not  only,  for  the  linings  of  man- 
tles and  other  ornaments  of  the  shields,  but  also  in  the  coats- 
of-arms  themselves.  How  many  kinds  are  in  general  use? 
Three,  namely,  ermine,  which  is  a  field  argent,  or  silver,  pow- 
dered with  black  spots,  the  tails  of  which  terminate  in  three 
points,  (see  Fig.  12  in  plate  II. ;)  counter-ermine,  where  the  field 
is  sable  and  the  powdering  white,  (see  Fig.  13  ;)  and  vair,  which 
is  expressed  by  blue  and  white  skins,  cut  into  the  forms  of  little 
bells,  ranged  in  rows  opposite  each  other,  the  base  of  the  white 
ones  being  always  next  to  that  of  the  blue  ones,  (Fig.  14.)  Are 
there  more  known  in  England  ?  The  English  multiply  the  furs, 
as  well  as  the  names  of  the  tinctures.  Thus  they  give  us  white, 
which  is  the  natural  color  of  the  ermine ;  ermines,  which  is  the 
same  with  the  contra-ermine  ;  erminois,  where  the  field  is  or  and 
the  powdering  sable,  (Fig.  15  ;)  pean,  where  the  field  is  sable 
and  the  powdering  or,  (Fig.  16.)  Are  escutcheons  ever  di- 
vided into  compartments  of  different  tinctures?  Yes,  those 
which  are  of  only  one,  are  said  to  have  such  a  tincture  pre- 
dominant ;  but  in  those  which  have  more  than  one,  the  field 
is  divided  by  lines,  which,  according  to  their  different  forms, 
have  different  names.  There  are  fourteen  different  kinds 
of  lines,  viz:  1.  The  engrailed;  2.  The  invected;  3.  The 
wavy;  4.  The  embattled,  or  crenelle;  5.  The  nebule;  6.  The 
regule ;  7.  The  indented ;  8.  The  dancette ;  9.  The  dovetail ; 
10.  The  grafted;  11.  The  embattled  aronde ;  12.  The  battle 
embattled.  13.  The  patee,  or  dovetail ;  14.  The  champaine. 
(See  plate  II.,  Fig.  17.)  When  shields  are  thus  divided,  how  are 
they  said  to  be  parted  ?  If  a  division  consist  of  two  equal  parts, 
divided  by  a  perpendicular  fine,  it  is  called  parted  per  pale,  (Fig. 
18  ;)  by  the  horizontal  line,  parted  per  fess,  (Fig.  19  ;)  by  the 
diagonal  dexter,  parted  ^xr  bend,  (Fig.  20  ;)  by  the  diagonal  sin- 
ister, parted  per  bend  sinister.  If  a  field  be  divided  into  four 
equal  parts,  by  any  of  these  lines,  what  is  it  then  said  to  be  ? 
Quartered,  or  parted  j^er  cross,  which  is  made  by  a  perpendicu 
lar  and  horizontal  line  crossing  each  other  at  the  centre  of  the 
field,  (Fig.  21 ;)  2.  Quartered  or  parted  per  saltier,  which  is 
made  by  two  diagonal  lines,  dexter  and  sinister,  crossing  each 
other  in  the  centre  of  the  field,  (Fig.  22.)  What  do  armorists 
call  a  charge?  Whatever  is  contained  in  the. field,  whether  it 
occupy  the  whole  or  only  part  thereof:  these  are  distinguished 
by  the  names  of  honorable  ordinaries,  subordinaries,  and  common, 
charges.  Describe  them.  Honorable  ordinaries  are  made  of 
lines  only,  which,  according  to  their  disposition  and  form,  receive 
different  names ;  subordinaries  are  ancient  heraldic  figures,  which 


370  HERALDRY. 

are  also  distinguished  by  proper  names ;  and  common  charges 
are  composed  of  natural,  artificial,  and  even  chimerical  object^ 
or  figures ;  such  as  planets,  creatures,  vegetables,  instruments, 
etc.  How  many  honorable  ordinaries  are  there  ?  Nine ;  the 
chief,  the  pale,  the  bend,  the  bend  sinister,  the  fess,  the  bar, 
the  cheveron,  the  cross,  and  the  saltier.  What  is  the  chief? 
The  chief  is  determined  by  a  horizontal  line ;  it  is  placed  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  escutcheon,  and  contains  in  depth  the  third 
part  of  the  shield,  (Fig.  24.)  What  is  the  pale?  It  consists 
of  two  perpendicular  lines  drawn  from  the  top  to  the  base  of  a 
field,  and  contains  the  third  middle  part,  (Fig.  25.)  What  is 
the  bend,  and  the  bend  sinister  ?  The  bend  consists  of  tAvo 
diagonal  lines,  drawn  from  the  dexter  chief  to  the  sinister  base, 
and  contains  the  fifth  part  of  the  field,  if  uncharged ;  but  if 
charged,  then  the  third.  The  bend  sinister  is  the  same,  but 
drawn  the  contrary  way,  or  from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  base, 
(Fig.  26.)  Describe  the  fess,  and  bar.  The /ess  is  formed  by 
two  parallel  lines,  drawn  horizontally  across  the  centre  of  a 
field;  and  contains  in  breadth  the  third  part  of  it,  (Fig.  27.) 
A  bar  contains  only  the  fifth  part,  (Fig.  28 :)  a  shield  can 
only  have  one  fess,  though  it  may  have  many  bars.  What 
is  a  chevron  ?  It  represents  the  two  rafters  of  a  house  well 
joined  together,  or  a  pair  of  compasses  half  open,  and  occu- 
pies the  fifth  part  of  a  field,  (Fig.  29.)  What  is  a  cross?  It 
is  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  perpendicular  with  two 
horizontal  lines  in  the  fess  point,  where  they  make  four  right 
angles.  There  is  so  great  a  variety  of  crosses  used  in  Herald- 
ry, that  it  is  impossible  to  name  them ;  but  we  give  a  few. 
(Figs.  30,  31,  etc.)  What  is  a  saltier?  A  saltier  is  formed  by 
a  bend  and  a  bend  sinister  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 
In  Scotland,  this  is  called  a  St.  Andrew's  cross,  (Fig.  31.)  What 
is  said  of  the  representation  of  living  creatures  and  other  sym- 
bohcal  figures  ?  That  in  all  ages  men  have  made  use  of  them 
to  distinguish  themselves  in  war,  and  that  they  consist  of  the 
greatest  variety,  composed  of  figures,  some  natural  and  some 
artificial,  etc.  The  sun,  moon,  and  stars  have  been  introduced, 
to  denote  glory,  grandeur,  etc. ;  hons,  tigers,  serpents,  stags, 
etc.,  to  denote  swiftness,  courage,  strength,  prudence,  etc. 
What  is  said  of  the  external  ornaments  of  escutcheons  ?  They 
were  introduced  to  denote  the  birth,  dignity,  or  office  of  the  per- 
»on  to  whom  the  coat-of-arms  belonged.  Those  which  are  most 
in  use  consist  of  ten  sorts,  viz.,  crowns,  coronets,  mitres,  helmets, 
mantlings,  chapeaux,  wreaths,  crests,  scrolls,  and  supporters. 
Describe  the   crowns.     The  first  crowns  were  only  diadems, 


QUESTIONS  ON  371 

blinds,  or  fillets ;  but  afterwards  they  were  composed  of  branches 
of  various  trees,  and  then  flowers  were  added  to  them.  Amongst 
the  Greeks,  the  crowns  given  to  those  who  carried  off  the  prizes 
at  the  Isthmian  games,  were  of  pine  branches ;  at  the  Olympic 
of  laurel ;  and  at  the  Nemean  of  parsley.  The  Romans  also  had 
various  crowns  to  reward  martial  exploits,  and  extraordinary 
services  done  to  the  government.  What  are  modern  crowns 
used  for  ?  As  ornaments,  which  emperors,  kings,  and  independ- 
ent princes  put  on  their  heads  in  great  solemnities,  both  to 
denote  their  sovereign  authority,  and  to  render  themselves  more 
imposing  to  their  subjects.  Those  most  used  in  Heraldry  are, 
1 .  The  imperial  crown,  which  is  made  of  a  circle  of  gold,  adorned 
with  precious  stones  and  pearls,  heightened  with  fleur-de-lis, 
bordered  and  seeded  with  pearls,  and  raised  in  the  form  of  a 
cap,  voided  at  the  top  like  a  crescent.  From  the  middle  of  this 
cap  rises  an  arched  fillet,  enriched  with  pearls,  and  surmounted 
with  a  mound  on  which  is  a  cross  of  pearls.  What  is  the 
second  ?  The  crown  of  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  which  is  a  circle 
of  gold,  enriched  with  precious  stones  and  pearls,  and  bordered 
with  ermine ;  heightened  up  with  four  crosses  patee,  and  four 
large  fleur-de-hs,  alternately :  from  these  rise  four  arched  dia- 
dems, adornsd  with  pearls,  which  close  under  a  mound,  sur- 
mounted with  a  cross  like  those  at  the  bottom,  (Fig.  37.) 
What  is  the  third  ?  The  crown  of  the  kings  of  France,  which 
is  a  circle  enamelled,  adorned  with  precious  stones,  and  height- 
ened up  with  four  arched  diadems,  rising  from  as  many  fleur- 
de-lis,  which  conjoin  at  the  top,  under  another  double  fleur-de- 
lis,  all  of  gold. 

What  of  the  crowns  of  Spain,  Portugal,  Poland,  etc.  ?  They 
are  all  three  of  the  same  form.  The  Grand  Seignior  bears  over 
his  arms  a  turban,  enriched  with  pearls,  diamonds,  etc.,  and 
the  Pope  of  Rome  bears  a  tiara,  or  long  cap  of  golden  cloth, 
from  which  hang  two  pendants,  embroidered  and  fringed  at  the 
ends  "  Leon^e''  with  crosses  of  gold.  What  of  coronets  ?  They  are 
of  difierent  forms,  and  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the  bearer. 
That  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  or  eldest  son  of  the  king  or  queen 
of  Great  Britain,  was  anciently  a  circle  of  gold,  set  round  with 
four  crosses  patee  and  as  many  fleur-de-lis,  alternately ;  but 
since  the  restoration  it  has  bee.n  closed  with  one  arch  only, 
adorned  with  pearls,  surmounted  by  a  mound  and  cross,  and 
bordered  with  ermine  like  the  king's.  What  of  mitres  ?  The 
archbishops  and  bishops  of  England  and  Ireland  place  a  mitre 
over  their  coats-of-arms.  It  is  a  round  cap  pointed  and  cleft 
at  the  top,  from  which  hang  two  pendants  fringed  at  both  ends. 


372  HERALDRY. 

What  of  the  hehnet  ?  The  helmet  was  formerly  worn  as  a  de- 
fensive weapon,  to  cover  the  bearer's  head,  and  is  now  placed 
over  a  coat-of-arms  as  its  chief  ornament,  and  the  true  mark  of 
gentility.  Several  sorts  have  been  distinguished;  1.  By  the 
matter  they  are  made  of;  2.  By  their  form;  and  3.  By  their 
position.  Describe  these.  The  helmets  of  sovereigns  were  of 
burnished  gold,  damasked,  or  engraved  with  figures ;  those  of 
princes  and  lords,  of  silver  figured  with  gold ;  those  of  knights 
of  steel  adorned  with  silver ;  and  those  of  private  gentlemen,  of 
polished  steel :  those  of  kings,  the  royal  family  of  England,  and 
noblemen,  are  open-faced,  and  grated,  (Fig.  38 ;)  the  number 
of  bars  serves  to  distinguish  the  bearer's  quality,  (Fig  39.)  The 
open-faced  helmet,  without  bars,  denotes  baronets  ind  knigLts, 
(Fig.  40 ;)  the  close  helmet  is  for  esquires  and  gentlemen,  (Fig. 
41.)  What  else  is  said  of  them  ?  Their  position  is  a  mark  of 
distinction,  as  seen  by  the  plates :  the  grated  in  front  belongs  to 
the  sovereign  princes ;  the  grated  in  profile  to  all  of  inferior 
rank,  as  far  as  baronets ;  the  helmet  standing  direct,  without 
bars,  and  the  bearer  a  little  open,  denotes  baronets  and  knights ; 
lastly,  the  side  standing  helmet,  with  the  bearer  closed,  is  pe- 
culiar to  gentlemen.  What  are  mantlings  ?  They  are  pieces 
of  cloth  jagged  or  cut  into  leaves,  which  now  serve  as  an  orna- 
ment for  escutcheons ;  they  were  the  ancient  coverings  of  hel- 
mets, to  preserve  them  or  the  bearers  frona  the  effects  of  the 
weather ;  but  their  shape  has  undergone  a  great  change,  and 
they  may  now  be  cviW^di  flourishings.  Sometimes  skins  of  beasts, 
as  lions,  bears,*  etc.,  were  thus  borne,  to  make  the  bearer  look 
more  terrible ;  and  that  gave  occasion  to  the  doublings  of  man- 
tlings with  furs.  What  are  chapeaux  in  Heraldry  ?  A  chapeau 
is  an  ancient  hat,  or  rather  cap  of  dignity,  worn  by  dukes,  lined 
and  turned  up  with  fur.  What  is  a  wreath  ?  A  kind  of  roll 
made  of  two  skeins  of  silk,  of  different  colors,  twisted  together, 
which  ancient  knights  usually  wore  as  a  head-dress  when  equip- 
ped for  tournaments.  The  colors  of  the  silks  were  always  taken 
from  the  principal  metal  and  colors  in  the  coat-of-arms.  They  are 
Btill  accounted  one  of  the  ornaments  of  escutcheons,  and  are 
placed  between  a  helmet  and  a  crest.  What  is  a  crest?  It  is 
the  highest  part  of  ths  ornament  of  a  coat-of-arms.  It  is  called 
crest  from  the  Latin  wo.'i  crista,  which  signifies  comb,  or  tuft, 
such  as  many  birds  have  upon  their  heads,  as  the  peacock, 

*  Sometimes  the  skin  of  the  head  was  left  on,  and  drawn  up  over  the  hel- 
met.  Scott  gives  a  particular  description  of  this,  in  speaking  of  William  da 
.a  Marcke,  commonly  called  the  Boar  of  Ardennes,  from  a  wild-boar  skia 
which  he  wore  drawn  over  his  helmet.     (See  "  Quentin  Durward,"  vol.  2.) 


QUESTIONS  ON  37S 

pheasant,  and  others.  They  were  formerly  great  marks  of 
honor,  because  they  were  only  worn  by  heroes  of  great  valor, 
or  by  such  as  were  advanced  to  some  superior  mihtary  com- 
mand. Are  they  of  ancient  origin  ?  Yes,  they  are  spoken  of 
by  Homer  and  Virgil,  and  among  the  heathen  gods  and  god- 
desses are  described.  The  crest  to  Minerva's  helmet  was  an 
owl.  They  were  formerly  always  placed  on  the  helmet.  The 
crest  is  frequently  a  part  of  either  the  supporters  or  of  the  charge 
borne  in  the  escutcheon.  What  is  the  scroll  ?  It  is  the  orna- 
ment placed  above  the  crest,  or  beneath  the  shield,  containing 
a  motto,  or  short  sentence  alluding  thereto,  or  to  the  bearer's 
name.  Thus  the  motto  of  the  Earl  of  Cholmondely*  is  "  Cassis 
tutissima  virtus,'*  or  "Virtue  is  the  safest  helmet ;"  alluding  to 
the  helmet  in  the  coat-of-arms.  The  motto  of  Lord  Fortescue 
is  ''Forte  scutum,  salus  ducum,'  "A  strong  shield  is  the  safety 
of  the  commander ;"  alluding  to  the  name  of  that  family.  The 
motto  of  the  Lawrences  is  '•'In  cruce  salus,"  "Safety  in  the 
cross" — from  the  cross  in  their  arms.  The  motto  of  the  royal 
arms  of  England  is  "  Dieu  et  mon  droit,""  "  God  and  my  right," 
introduced  in  1340,  by  Edward  the  Third,  when  he  assumed 
the  arms  and  title  of  King  of  France ;  and  that  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  "  Ich  dien,"  "  I  serve,"  Avhich  his  son  Edward  the 
Black  Prince  took  with  the  crest,  a  plume  of  feathers,  from  the 
King  of  Bohemia,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy.  What  are  support- 
ers ?  They  are  figures  standing  on  the  scroll,  and  placed  at  the 
side  of  the  escutcheon,  and  are  called  supporters  because  they 
seem  to  support  the  shield.  What  is  the  origin  of  supporters  ? 
They  are  traced  by  Menestrier  to  ancient  tournaments,  in  which 
the  knights  caused  their  shields  to  be  carried  by  servants  or 
pages,  in  the  disguise  of  blackamoors,  lions,  bears,  griffons,  etc. 
They  were  formerly  taken  from  such  animals,  biids,  etc.,  as  were 
borne  ii:  the  coat-of-arms;  and  sometimes  in  allusion  to  the 
names  of  the  family.  The  supporters  of  the  arms  of  Great 
Britain,  since  the  accession  of  James  I.  to  the  throne,  are  a  lion 
rampant  guardant  crowned  or,  on  the  dexter  side,  and  a  unicorn 
argent,  crowned,  armed,  unguled,  maned,  and  gorged  with  an 
antique  crown,  to  which  a  chain  is  affixed,  all  or,  on  the  sinister, 
(Royal  arms,  Plate  III.)  The  first  is  the  emblem  of  England,  the 
second  of  Scotland,  and  James  the  First  united  them.  How  are 
different  branches  descending  from  the  same  family  distinguish- 
ed ?  By  different  figures  represented  in  the  coat-of-arms,  not  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  charge,  but  placed  in  the  escutcheon  to  distin* 

*  Pronounced  "  ChumleyJ* 
32 


374  HERALDRY. 

guisli  the  different  sons  of  the  first  house  and  their  descendants, 
again  called  the  second  house,  and  so  on.  These  are  all  engraved 
and  marked  on  the  plates.     (See  Plate  I.) 

What  is  the  Regalia  of  England  ?  It  consists  of  the  crown 
called  St.  Edward's  crown ;  the  crown  made  for  King  George 
the  Fourth ;  the  new  crown,  or  that  with  which  Queen  Victoria 
was  crowned ;  the  cartana,  or  sword  of  mercy ;  the  golden 
sceptre  with  the  cross ;  the  sceptre  with  the  dove ;  St.  Edward's 
staff;  Queen  Mary's  sceptre  ;  the  ivory  sceptre  with  the  dove ; 
the  coronation  ring ;  the  queen  consort's  coronation  ring ;  the 
golden  orb  or  globe  ;  the  queen  consort's  circle,  etc.  All  these 
are  covered  with  precious  stones,  and  of  the  most  beautiful 
workmanship.  They  are  kept  in  the  Tower  of  London.  What 
other  crown-jewels  are  there  ?  The  regalia  of  Scotland,  con- 
sisting of  the  crown  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  which  Robert 
Bruce  was  crowned  in  the  year  1306,  the  old  regalia  having 
been  taken  away  at  the  degradation  of  Bahol,  in  1296,  by  King 
Edward  the  First ;  the  sceptre,  which  is  a  slender  rod  of  sil- 
ver, with  three  figures  at  the  head,  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  St.  An- 
d^'ew,  and  St.  James,  surmounted  by  a  ball  of  rock-crystal,  which 
is  extremely  beautiful.  The  sword  of  state  is  also  of  beautiful 
wf)rkmanship,  and  was  presented  to  James  the  Fourth  of  Scot- 
ia'id,  by  Pope  JuHus  the  Second. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  FIRST. 

FIRST  HOUSE. 

For  the  heir  of  the  family,  the  Label Fig.  1. 

**  second  son the  Crescent "  2. 

"  third  son the  Mullet "  3. 

«  fourth  son the  Martlet "  4. 

"  fifth  son the  Amulet "  5. 

**  sixth  son the  Fleur-de-lis  . . . .   "  6. 

"  seventh  son the  Rose "  7. 

"  eighth  son the  Cross  Moline ..."  8. 

"  ninth  son the  Double  Quatrefoil  "  9. 

SECOND    HOUSE. 

First  or  eldest  son,  the  Crescent  with  the  Label  on  it. 
The  Crescent  on  the  Crescent  for  the  second  son  of  the  second! 
Jon ;  and  so  on  through  the  different  houses.     (See  Plate  I.) 


QUESTIONS  ON 


375 


PLATE  FIRST. 

DISTINCTIONS    OF  HOUSES. 
8.  First  Hause.  *• 


What  are  the  orders  of  rank  in  which  the  nobihty  of  England 
are  marshalled  ?  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  here  into  all  the 
minute  particulars ;  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  sovereign  takes 
precedence  of  all  the  nobility  and  gentry,  and  next  follows  the 
Prince  of  Wales  ;  then  all  the  younger  sons  of  the  sovereign,  in 
order  of  their  age  ;  next  the  princesses,  (the  eldest  is  called  the 
Princess  Royal ;)  then  the  brothers  and  uncles  of  the  sovereign, 
etc., — all  in  fact  who  are  of  the  blood  royal.  Who  come  next 
in  order  of  rank  ?  The  dukes.  The  first  duke  in  England, 
properly  so  called,  was  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  to 
Kdward  the  Third,  whom  his  father,  in  1337,  created  Duke  of 
Cornwall ;  and  thus  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  or  sovereign  b 


376  HERA..DRY. 

Duke  of  Cornwall  by  inheritance.  Duke  is  said  to  be  so  callea 
from  Dux,  a  leader,  or  captain.  After  the  Duke  of  Cornwall 
come  all  the  other  dukes  in  order  of  their  creations,  or  the  date 
at  which  they  received  their  titles.  All  dukes'  eldest  sons  are 
called  Marquises,  and  the  younger  sons  Lords,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  their  Christian  name,  as  Lord  John,  Lord  Thomas,  etc. ; 
and  all  the  daughters  Ladies,  as  Lady  Maiy,  Lady  Susan,  etc. 
Who  are  next  in  order  of  ri,nk  ?  The  marquises.  The  term 
Marquis  is  of  Saxon  derivation,  and  was  called  "  marJceurce,'" 
which  signified  a  governor  or  ruler  of  marches  and  frontiers  ; 
but  it  has  been  a  title  of  honor  only  of  later  years,  the  first  being 
Robert  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford,  created  Marquis  i>f  Dublin  by 
Richard  II.,  in  1387.  The  eldest  son  of  a  marquis  is  called  an 
Earl,  and  his  younger  sons  and  daughters  Lords  and  Ladies. 
What  is  the  next  degree  of  honor  ?  The  Earl,  taken  from 
the  Saxon  Eaorl.  An  earl  has  the  title  of  Lordship,  and  being 
written  to  is  called  Right  Honorable,  by  the  courtesy  of  England. 
An  earl's  eldest  son  is  a  Viscount,  and  his  daughters  are  Ladies  ; 
but  his  younger  sons  have  no  title  of  peerage,  and  are  simply 
styled  the  Honorable  John,  Thomas,  etc.  What  is  the  next 
title  ?  That  of  viscount,  which  w^as  anciently  an  office  under  an 
earl.  The  title  of  a  viscount  is  Lord.  His  eldest  son  has  no 
title  of  peerage,  but  is  styled  Honorable,  as  are  all  the  other 
sons  and  daughters.  Who  come  next  in  rank  ?  The  two  arch- 
bishops and  the  bishops.  The  archbishops  are  over  the  bishops, 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  or  Primate  and  Metropoli- 
tan of  England,  takes  precedence  of  all  others — even  the  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  who  is  Primate  of  England,  and  Metropolitan 
of  his  'province.  The  archbishops  and  bishops  are  all  called 
"My  Lord,"  as  My  Lord  of  Canterbury,  My  Lord  of  London, 
etc.  Who  come  next  ?  The  barons  are  next  in  rank  to  the 
bishops,  and  have  also  the  title  of  Lord ;  after  the  barons  come 
the  baronets,  and  then  knights,  the  lowest  order  of  rank,  though 
all  peers  are  knights  of  some  particular  order  of  knighthood,  of 
which  the  most  honorable  is  the  order  of  the  garter.  Describe 
the  origin  of  this  order.  According  to  the  most  authentic  ac- 
counts, this  ancient  and  honorable  order  was  instituted  by  King 
Edward  HI.,  A.  D.  1350.  Having  engaged  in  a  war  with 
France,  to  which  he  laid  claim  in  right  of  his  mother  Isabella, 
he  allured  to  his  party  all  such  as  were  brave  men  and  eminent 
commanders,  with  the  view  of  exciting  a  spirit  of  emulation  and 
mihtary  genius  among  his  nobility.  To  this  end  he  erected  a 
round  table  at  Windsor,  in  imitation  of  King  Arthur's ;  and  here 
the  numerous  guests  were  exercised  at  tilt  and  tournay,  and 


QUESTIONS  CN 


37' 


Collar,  Badge,  and  Garter. 


Jroyally  entertained.  On  his  return  victorious  from  France,  he 
rewarded  those  knights  who  had  served  him  vahantly  with  this 
distinguished  badge,  or  order ;  the  total  number  being  twenty-six, 
of  which  his  Majesty  himself  was  one.  Is  there  not  another  story 
told  of  the  institution  of  this  order  ?  Yes,  a  romantic  story  is  told 
of  the  fair  Countess  of  Salisbury,  who  in  dancing  with  the  king 
let  fall  her  garter,  which  the  king  took  up  and  tied  around  his 
own  leg ;  this  garter  was  blue,  like  that  of  the  order :  the  queen 
being  jealous,  and  the  courtiers  smiling,  the  monarch  restored 
ii  to  its  fair  owner,  saying,  "  Honi  soit  qui  rnai  y  pense,''  or  "Evil 
be  to  him  who  evil  thinks  of  it ;"  and  that  he  then  instituted  the 
order  of  the  garter  with  this  motto.  Which  story  must  we  give 
credence  to  ?  Most  probably  the  order  of  knighthood  had  been 
Instituted  as  before  related,  and  that  the  king,  to  prevent  all 
remark,  attached  the  blue  riband  and  motto  to  it,  giving  it  then 
for  the  first  time  the  name  of  "  Order  of  the  Garter."  Is  it 
considered  a  very  honorable  order  ?  The  most  so  in  the  world, 
as  King  Edward  was  a  most  brave  and  chivalric  prince,  and  its 
first  knights  all  men  of  renown : 
kings  and  princes,  of  all  nations, 
have  from  that  time  deemed  it  the 
greatest  honor  to  be  invested  with 
it;  and  the  sovereigns  of  England 
have  invested  some  of  the  other 
potentates  with  it,  when  they  have 
most  desired  to  do  them  honor. 
What  are  the  habit  and  insignia  of 
the  order  ?  They  consist  of  garter, 
surcoat,  mantle,  hood,  George,  col- 
lar, cap,  and  feathers.  The  garter 
is  of  dark-blue  velvet,  edged  with 
gold,  bearing  the  motto  "  Honi  soit 
qui  mal  y  pense,"  in  letters  of  gold, 
with  buckle  and  pendant  of  gold ; 
it  is  worn  below  the  left  knee. 
What  of  the  mantle  ?  It  is  of  blue 
velvet,  lined  with  taffeta;  on  the 
breast  is  embroidered  the  star.  The 
surcoat  is  of  crimson  velvet,  lined 
with  taffeta.  The  hood  is  also  of 
crimson  velvet.  The  hat  is  of  black 
velvet,  lined  with  white  taffeta,  and 
adorned  with  a  large  plume  of  white 
ostrich  feathers,  with  a  tuft  of 
32* 


378 


HERALDRY. 


black  heron's  in  the  centre^  affixed  to  the  hat  by  a  band  of  dia- 
monds. Describe  the  collar.  It  is  of  gold,  composed  of  twenty- 
six  pieces,  for  the  twenty-six  knights,  each  in  the  form  of  a 
garter,  enamelled  blue,  with  the  motto.  To  this  is  appended  the 
badge,  or  figure  of  St.  George  on  horseback,  (Fig.  p.  368.)  The 
jewel  is  worn  in  common  attached  to  a  broad  blue  riband  over 
the  left  shoulder.  What  of  the  order  of  the  Bath?  It  is  so 
called  from  part  of  the  ceremony  at  the  installation.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Fourth,  there  was  a  degree  of  knighthood 
specified  under  this  title.  That  king,  on  the  day  of  his  coro- 
nation, in  the  Tower  of  London,  conferred  the  honor  on  forty- 
six  esquires,  who  had  watched  their  armor  all  the  night  before, 
and  had  ^^  bathed^'  themselves.  Charles  the  Second  allowed 
the  chapel  of  Henry  the  Seventh,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  to 
be  the  chapel  of  the  order,  and  directed  that  each  knight's 
banner,  with  plates  of  his  arms  and  style,  should  be  placed  over 
the  several  stalls  in  like,  manner  as  those  of  the  knights  of  the 
Garter,  in  St.  George's  chapel  at  Windsor.  To  these  have  been 
added  two  inferior  grades  of  the  order,  called  "  Knights  Com- 
manders" and  ''Knights  Companions"  of  the  Bath.  These  last 
take  precedence  of  esquires  or  simple  gentlemen,  but  are  not 
entitled  to  the  appellations  of  knight,  or  sir.  The  badge  of 
the  order  is  worn  pendent  by  a  ring  to  a  broad  red  riband 
over  the  right  shoulder.  The  motto  is  "  Triajuncta  in  uno" — 
''Three  in  one."  Are  there  any  other  orders  of  knighthood  in 
England?  There  are  several  other  noble  orders  of  knights; 
those  of  St.  Andrew,  St.  Patrick,  etc.  The  first  of  these  is  of 
Scottish  origin,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  by  King 
Achaus,  on  the  occasion  of  a  cross,  similar  to  that  on  which  St. 
Andrew  was  cinicified,  appearing  in  the  heavens  to  him  and 
Hungus,  king  of  the  Picts,  on  the  night  previous  to  the  battle 
gained  by  them  over  Athelstan,  king  of  England.  It  was  revived 
by  James  V.  of  Scotland,  and  again  by  James  II.  of  England. 
The  motto  in  reference  to  the  thistle,  the  emblem  of  Scotland, 
which  appears  in  the  collar,  is  "Nemo  me  impure  lacessit.'* 
What  of  the  order  of  the  Thistle  ?  It  was  instituted  by  George 
the  Third,  in  1783. 

Are  there  any  orders  of  rank  in  the  United  States  ?  Being  a 
republic,  there  are  no  orders  of  nobility ;  but  all  members  of 
the  United  States  senate,  all  the  secretaries,  judges  of  the  su- 
preme court,  etc.,  are  called  '' Honor  able. ^^  There  is  also  one 
hereditary  order,  that  of  Cincinnatus,  which  was  instituted  at 
the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  consisted  of  seventy-six 
members,  General  Washington  being  the  first  president ;  and 


QUESTIONS  ON 


379 


from  the  time  of  his  death  the  eldest  member  of  the  society  has 
always  been  president  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  when  it  was 
transferred  to  the  next  in  age,  and  so  on.  The  members  were 
at  first  all  men  who  had  served  their  country  at  that  time,  and  it 
has  since  descended  to  their  eldest  sons,  grandsons,  or  nephews. 
The  riband  is  light-blue,  bordered  with  white,  and  worn  in  the 
button-hole,  with  a  small  enamelled  eagle  attached.  The  badge 
is  very  beautiful,  and  was  presented  by  Marie  Antoinette,  the 
beautiful  and  unfortunate  queen  of  Louis  XVI.,  king  of  France, 
to  General  Washington.  It  consists  of  the  American  eagle  in 
diamonds,  holding  in  his  mouth  a  branch  of  laurel  composed  of 
emeralds  and  rubies,  which  surrounds  the  eagle.  On  the  re- 
verse is  a  beautiful  enamel,  in  colors,  of  Cincinnatus  called  from 
the  plough  by  the  ambassadors  from  Rome,  with  the  motto, 
"  Virtute  et  Lahore,"  in  letters  of  gold.  The  badge  is  attached 
to  a  broad  light-blue  riband,  with  white  edges,  and  is  worn  by 
the  president  alone,  across  the  right  shoulder,  when  the  Cincin- 
nati meet ;  all  others  wearing  the  simple  enamelled  badge. 

PLATE  SECOND. 


Argent— Whitfc 


Purpure— Purpl* 


^       ^ 

r 

\ » * 

'i            t 

San§^uine. 


380 


HERALDRY. 


14 

15. 

19. 

Mm. 

■■A-y:m--- 

^  Ai 

M, 

^^1 

A 

-isisisiy 


Engrailed 

Invecked 

Wavy 

Kebule 

Embattled 

Raguly ••••'^/Z/Z/Z/Z 

Indented /v/Vv/VVvVvVVV 

Dancette v/^\/'^^*v.^^^\. 

Do^etaa rzrzjrz-TZiz 


Partj-ptr  Crou. 
SS. 


?«rty-p«r  Saltire  P»rty-per  Chevron 


QUESTIONS  ON 


381 


Pierced.  Raguled.  Degraded.  Cercelefe.  CrampMMi 


Crown  ol'  Slate. 


Nobflitr  KnighU 


3S2 


HERALDRY. 


PLATE  THmD. 

ROYAL      <^  CL^      ARMS. 


Kaanpant  CombaUnt.  Saliant.  Rampant  Addorsed.    Counter  Passant. 

9.  10.  U.  12. 


Countet  Saliant.        Couuter  Tripping.    Sejant  Addorsed.    Passant  Regardant 
13.  14.  /        15.  16. 


4t  GftZO  Tripping.  Springing 


QUESTIONS  ON 


383 


Respecting.        Naiant  EmboweO.      Demi-Lion  Passant.      Demi-Fleur-de-U*. 
''•  3'-  35.  36. 


Issuant.  |ou,ant.  slipped.  TirreU 

87.  38.  S9.  40. 


Couped.  KraseU. 


DormanU 


384 


HERALDRY. 


Sejant.  Passant.  Statant. 


DEFINITIONS    OF    VARIOUS    HERALDIC    TERMS. 

Passant-  Gardant.  A  tenii  for  a  beast  when  walking  with  his 
head  affronter  or  looking  full-faced,  as  example  No.  1,  Plate  III. 

Rampant.  A  term  for  lions,  bears,  tigers,  etc.,  when  standing 
erect  on  their  hind  leg.     A  Lion  Rampant,  No.  2. 

Rampant-  Gardant  signifies  a  beast  standing  on  his  hind  leg, 
looking  full-faced,  as  example,  A  Lion  Rampant- Gardant,  No.  3. 

Rampant- Regardant.  A  term  for  a  beast  standing  upon  its 
hinder  leg,  looking  towards  its  tail ;  namely,  A  Lion  Rampant- 
Regardant,  as  No.  4. 

Rampant- Combatant.  A  term  for  beasts  fighting,  or  rampant 
face  to  face,  as  the  example,  Two  Lions  Rampant-  Combatant. 
See  No.  5. 

Saliani.  A  term  for  beasts  of  prey  when  leaping  or  springing 
forward,  as  the  example  No.  6. 

Addorstd  signifies  beasts,  birds,  or  fish  turned  back  to  back, 
as  the  example,  Two  Lions  Rampant  Addorsed.     See  No.  7. 

Counter- r*assant ;  for  two  beasts,  as  lions,  etc.,  when  walking 
different  ways,  the  one  to  the  dexter,  the  other  to  the  sinister, 
as  the  example  No.  8. 

Counter- iSaliant.  A  term  for  two  beasts  when  leaping  differ- 
ent wrtys  from  each  other,  as  the  example,  Two  Foxes  Counter- 
Saliant  in  Saltire,  tlie  dexter  surmounted  of  iJie  sinister,  No.  9. 

Counter-  Tripping.  This  term  is  given  when  two  rams,  deer, 
etc.,  as  the  example,  are  tripping ;  the  one  passing  one  way,  and 
the  other  another.     See  No.  10. 

Sejant  Addorsed.  A  term  for  two  animals  sitting  back  to  back, 
as  the  example  No.  11. 

Passant- Regardant.  A  term  for  a  beast  when  walking  with 
its  head  looking  behind.  No.  12. 

At  Gaze.  The  stag,  buck,  or  hind,  when  looking  affronts,  or 
full-faced,  is  said  to  be  At  Gaze,  No.  13.  All  other  beasts, 
when  in  this  attitude,  are  termed  Gardant. 

Tripping.  A  term  which  signifies  a  stag,  antelope,  or  hind, 
etc.,  when  walking,  as  No.  14.. 

Springing.  This  term  is  used  for  beasts  of  chase,  in  the  same 


QUESTIONS  ON  385 

sense  as  Saliant  is  for  beasts  of  prey.  No.  15.     This  term  is 
likewise  used  for  fish  wlien  placed  in  bend. 

Courant.  A  term  for  stag,  horse,  or  greyhound,  or  any  other 
beast,  represented  running,  as  the  example  No.  16. 

Lodged.  This  term  is  for  stags,  etc.  when  at  rest,  lying  on 
the  ground.  No.  17.  Beasts  of  chase  are  said  to  be  Lodged  ; 
beasts  of  prey,  when  lying  down,  are  termed  Couchant. 

Cahossed.  This  term  is  used  to  express  the  head  of  the  stag 
or  other  animal  placed  full-faced,  and  without  any  part  of  the 
neck  being  visible.  No.  18. 

Close.  This  term  is  for  the  wings  of  birds  (of  flight)  when 
they  are  down  and  close  to  the  body.  No.  19  ;  but  must  not  be 
used  to  the  peacock,  dunghill-cock,  nor  to  any  others  that  are 
not  addicted  to  flight. 

Rising,  A  term  for  birds  when  in  a  position  as  if  preparing 
to  fly,  as  No.  20. 

Displayed.  This  term  is  used  for  the  wings  of  eagles,  and  all 
other  birds,  when  they  are  expanded,  as  No.  21. 

Volant.  Thus  we  term  any  bird  that  is  represented  flying,  as 
No.  22. 

Demi- Volant.  A  term  for  a  single  wing,  No.  23. 

Indorsed.  A  term  for  wings  when  placed  back  to  back,  as 
No.  24. 

Erect  signifies  any  thing  perpendicularly  elevated,  as  the  ex- 
ample ;  namely.  Two  Wings  conjoined  and  erect — that  is,  the 
points  of  the  wings  are  upwards — No.  25. 

Inverted.  This  example  is  the  reverse  position  of  the  foimer, 
the  points  of  thsse  being  downwards  ;  namely,  Two  Wings  con- 
joined and  inverted — No.  26. 

JSfaiant.  A  term  for  fish  when  borne  horizontally  across  the 
field  as  swimming,  as  No.  27. 

Hauriant  signifies  the  fish  to  be  erect,  as  the  example  No.  28. 

Respecting.  A  term  for  fish,  or  birds,  when  placed  upright, 
and  apparently  looking  at  each  other,  as  No.  29. 

Naiant  Emhowed.  This  term  is  used  for  the  dolphin,  to  sig- 
nify the  crookedness  of  his  motion  when  swimming,  as  the 
example  Nc.  30. 

Demi-Lien  Passant  is  one-half  of  a  Hon  in  a  walking  position, 
as  No.  31. 

Demi'Fleur-de-lis  is  the  half  of  a  fleur-de-lis,  as  No.  32. 

Issuant,  or  issuing,  signifies  coming  out  of  the  bottom  of  the 
chief,  as  the  example  No.  33. 

Rousant  signifies  heavy  birds,  as  if  preparing  to  fly,  with  thf! 
wings  indorsed,  as  No.  34, 

33 


386  HERALDRY. 

Slipped.  A  terra  for  a  flower,  branch,  or  leaf,  wlien  plucked 
from  the  stock,  and  not  cut  ofiP,  No.  35. 

Tirret.  A  modern  term,  derived  from  the  French,  for  mana* 
chs,  or  handcuffs.  No.  36. 

CHARGES,  AND  THEIR  VARIOUS  HERALDIC  TERMS. 

Couped.  A  term  for  any  charge  in  an  escutcheon  that  is 
borne  cut  evenly  off,  as  the  example  ;  namely,  A  LiorCs  Head 
Couped,  No.  37. 

Erased.  A  term  for  any  thing  torn  or  plucked  off  from  the 
part  to  which  nature  had  fixed  it.  The  part  torn  off  must  be 
expressed  jagged,  as  the  example;  namely,  A  Lion's  Head 
Erased,  No.  38. 

Demi  signifies  the  half  of  any  thing  ;  namely,  A  Demi-Lion, 
No.  39. 

Dormant,  or  sleeping ;  namely,  A  Lion  Dormant,  with  its 
head  resting  on  its  fore  paws,  as  No.  40. 

Couchant ;  lying  or  squatting  on  the  ground,  with  the  head 
upright;  namely,  A  Lion  Couchant.     See  No.  41. 

Sejant.  A  term  for  any  beast  sitting  in  the  position  of  the 
example ;  namely,  A  Lion  Sejant,  No.  42. 

Passant.  A  term  for  any  beast  when  in  a  walking  position ; 
namely,  A  Lion  Passant,  No.  43. 

Statant.  A  term  for  a  beast  standing,  with  all  four  legs  on 
the  fijround,  as  No.  44. 


EXPLANATION 

OF 

SUCH  WOEDS  AND  PHRASES  AS  ARE  SELDOM 
ENGLISHED. 

A.  C.  Ante  Christum.     Before  Christ. 

Ad  absurdum.    Showing  the  absurdity  of  a  contrary  opinion. 

Ad  honores.     For  decency's  sake. 

Ad  patres.     Death  :  or  the  abode  of  the  just. 

Alias.     Otherwise. 

AliU.     Elsewhere  :  or  bemg  in  another  place. 

Alma  mater.     Chaste  mother.     The  University. 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    PHRASES.  387 

Alternis  horis.     Every  other  hour. 
Ana.     Of  each  ingredient  an  equal  quantity. 
Anno  mundi.     In  the  year  of  the  world. 
Argumentum  ad  hominem.     A  convincing  argument. 
Argumentum  ad  ignorantiam.     A  foolish  argument. 
Bona  fide.     Without  fraud  or  deceit. 
Cceteris  paribus.     The  rest,  or  other  things,  being  alike. 
Caput  mortuum.     The  thick  matter  which  remains  after  dis- 
tillation. 

Cranium.     The  skull. 

Cura  ut  valeas.     Take  care  of  thy  healt'n. 

Credenda.     Things  to  be  believed. 

D.  0.  M.    Deo  optima  maximo.    Dedicated  to  the  Almighty. 
JDelineavit.     Drew  it. 

E.  G.     Exempli  gratia.    For  example. 
Felo  de  se.    A  self-murderer. 

Inter  nos.     Between  ourselves. 

In  vacuo.     In  empty  space. 

Ipse  dixit.     He  said  it :  or,  an  assertion  without  proof. 

In  statu  quo.     As  it  was  before. 

Locum  tenens.     One  who  officiates  for  another. 

Major  domo.     One  who  lays  in  provisions  for  a  family. 

Mutatis  mutandis.     Changing  words  that  require  it. 

Multum  in  parvo.     Much  in  a  little. 

Nem.  con.     Without  opposition. 

Ne  plus  ultra.     To  the  utmost  extent. 

Noctambuli.     Persons  who  walk  in  their  sleep. 

Nolens  volens.     Without  consent,  not  wilhng. 

Non  compos  mentis.     Not  sound  in  mind. 

Posse  comitatus.     The  collective  force  of  a  county  or  shu'e. 

Post  meridiem.     Afternoon. 

Pro  aris  etfocis.     For  civil  and  religious  rights. 

Probatum  est.     It  is  tried,  and  proved. 

Pro  rata.  In  proportion,  or  according  to  what  one  can  afford. 

P.  P.  D.  Propria  pecunia  dedicavit.  With  his  own  money 
he  dedicated  it. 

Quam  diu  se  bene  gesserit.  As  long  as  he  or  she  shall  con- 
duct themselves  with  propriety  :  the  condition  upon  which  sit- 
uations in  law  courts,  &c.,  are  usually  granted. 

Quantum  sujficit.     Enough,  sufficient. 

Quasi  dicas.    As  if  you  should  say. 

Scripsit.     Wrote  it. 

Sculpsit.     Engraved  it. 

Srmmum  honum.     The  chief  good. 


388  THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 

Subpoena.    A  summons  to  attend  a  court. 

Ultimatum.     A  final  answer. 

Verbatim.     Word  for  word,  literally. 

Vice  versa.     On  the  contrary. 

Videlicet.     Namely. 

Viva  voce.     By  word  of  mouth. 

Vox  populi.     The  voice  of  the  people. 

Vox  Dei.    The  voice  of  God, 


QUESTIONS 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

What  portion  of  duration  is  meant  by  the  middle  ages  ?  That 
period  in  the  history  of  Europe  which  begins  with  the  final  de- 
struction of  the  Roman  empire,  and  by  some  historians  is  con- 
sidered to  end  with  the  Reformation  ;  by  others  with  the  dis' 
covery  of  America  ;  by  others  with  the  taking  of  Constantinople ; 
and  again,  by  some,  with  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing : 
the  propriety  of  selection  is  regulated  by  the  object  of  each 
historian :  in  general  the  middle  ages  may  be  said  to  embrace 
that  space  of  history  in  which  the  feudal  system  was  established 
and  developed,  down  to  the  most  prominent  events  which  led 
necessarily  to  its  overthrow;  although  its  consequences  and 
influence  are  still  observable  in  the  states  of  Europe.  What  is 
meant  by  the  dark  ages  ?  The  first  centuries  of  the  middle 
ages,  a  name  which  they  certainly  deserve ;  still,  however,  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  institutions,  by  the  irruption  of  bar- 
barous tribes,  is  often  unduly  lamented,  and  the  beneficial  con- 
sequences attending  it  overlooked.  Mention  some  of  the  con- 
sequences that  are  to  be  regretted.  Acquisitions,  that  had  cost 
mankind  ages  of  toil  and  labor,  were  lost  in  the  general  wreck, 
and  only  regained  by  the  efforts  of  many  successive  generations ; 
the  flowers  of  civilization  trampled  under  foot  by  barbarian  war- 
riors ;  the  ci\il  development  of  society  shaken  ;  and  those  nations 
to  which  Roman  civilization  had  extended  previous  to  the  Teu- 
tonic invasion,  thrown  back  into  primeval  barbarism. 

Explain  the  nature  and  effects  of  the  feudal  system.     Thia 


THIRD    ESTATE  389 

system  filled  Europe  with  powerful  barons,  possessing  vast 
landed  estates,  and  commanding  the  services  of  numerous  armed 
adherents.  Proprietors  of  the  soil,  with  arms  perpetually  in 
their  h^nds,  they  were  too  proud  to  obey  any  laws  but  those  of 
honor,  which  they  themselves  had  enacted,  and  despised  all 
engaged  in  peaceful  occupations  as  ignoble  and  created  to  obey. 
In  this  state  of  society  how  were  the  classes  not  military  ena- 
bled to  preserve  their  independence  ?  By  union,  which  afforded 
them  the  means  of  mutual  protection,  and  enabled  them  to  ex- 
ercise their  various  callings  unmolested,  and  thereby  acquire 
wealth  in  money  and  goods,  which  served  as  a  coimterpoise  to 
the  landed  possessions  of  the  barons :  this  necessity  led  to  the 
foundation  of  cities.  Describe  the  progress  towards  good  order 
and  security  in  those  newly-formed  communities.  Small  states 
gradually  grew  up  into  great  ones  ;  and  many  of  their  citizens 
became  so  bold  as  to  acknowledge  no  superior,  except  the  high- 
est authority  of  the  nation  to  which  they  belonged.  Strong, 
high  walls,  impenetrable  by  the  rude  military  implements  of 
the  time,  secured,  in  conjunction  with  the  valor  of  the  towns- 
men, the  freedom  of  those  that  dwelt  therein,  and  protected 
them  from  the  tyrants  of  the  land ;  well-ordered  civil  institu- 
tions preserved  peace  and  prosperity  within,  and  both  were 
secured  by  the  wealth  acquired  by  trade  and  manufacturing 
industry.  How  did  the  barons  endeavor  to  retain  their  hold 
over  the  citizens  ?  By  establishing  themselves  within  the  Avails, 
and  expressing  an  ambition  to  become  chief  magistrates  of  these 
little  commonwealths.  In  some  instances  they  soon  usurped 
the  exclusive  power,  by  flattery  and  apparent  condescension  ; 
while  in  those  states  that  were  imperfectly  organized,  and  where 
the  pride  of  the  nobles  was  excessive,  the  power  and  prosperity 
of  the  cities  rose  to  such  a  height,  that  in  Germany  and  Italy 
they  became  formidable  even  to  the  emperor  ;  and  the  people, 
a  third  estate,  was  fully  developed  in  Arragon  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century. 

When  did  the  third  estate  act  a  political  part  in  England,  and 
when  in  France  ?  The  cities  united  with  the  barons  in  wrest- 
ing the  Magna  Charta  from  king  John  of  England,  in  1215  ; 
and  their  growth  in  France  may  be  traced  to  the  conduct  of 
Louis  Le  Gros,  and  his  successors,  particularly  Philip  the  Fair, 
two  hundred  years  after  him,  who  deemed  it  their  wisest  policy 
to  protect  them  againstHhe  nobility,  and  thereby  increase  their 
own  ability  of  resisting  that  powerful  order.  In  what  part  of 
Europe  did  the  cities  acquire  the  earliest  and  the  greatest  pre- 
eminence ?     In  Germany  and  Italy :  what  could  not  be  accom- 

33* 


390  FREE    CITIES. 

plished  by  single  towns  in  France  and  England,  was  eflfected 
by  the  unions  or  leagues  of  several  in  the  great  empire :  the 
league  of  the  Lombard  cities  in  Italy ;  the  Hanseatic,  Rhenish, 
and  Suabian  leagues  in  Germany,  appeared  at  the  same  time  as 
great  and  formidable  powers.  Under  the  protection  of  such 
associations,  and  sheltered  by  embattled  walls,  all  arts  and 
trades,  and  every  species  of  civilization,  made  rapid  progress. 
Many  of  the  important  inventions,  which  we  now  value  so  high- 
ly, originated  amongst  the  citizens  of  those  small  free  states,  or 
were  suggested  by  their  active,  commercial,  and  manufacturing 
spirit. 

In  what  did  the  modem  free  cities  resemble  the  little  states 
of  ancient  times  ?  The  same  virtues  and  vices  that  adorned 
and  disgraced  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Rome,  had  their  existence 
in  the  free  states  of  Italy,  w^here  even  the  climate  resembled 
that  of  the  repubhcs  that  had  perished  1,500  years  before. 
What  farther  analogy  may  be  traced  between  them  ?  There 
was  the  same  love  of  country,  strict  morals,  and  valor,  the  same 
party  contests,  the  same  changes  of  administration  and  ambi- 
tious intrigues,  the  same,  though  differently  directed,  love  of 
arts  and  knowledge.  To  what  political  dangers  were  both 
equally  exposed  ?  To  the  overwhelming  power  of  ambitious 
individuals,  so  dangerous  to  all  free  states :  the  oppressed  por- 
tion of  the  citizens  was  again  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  the 
same  means  of  relief  that  had  originally  given  rise  to  the  pa- 
rent city,  and  generally  bound  themselves  to  each  other  by 
some  formal  contract,  for  the  better  protection  of  their  rights. 
What  consequences  followed  from  this  system  of  union  ?  Such 
associations,  usually  formed  amongst  those  of  the  same  trade, 
and  hai  ing  for  their  object,  next  to  security  from  external  ene- 
mies, the  maintenance  of  internal  order  in  those  stormy  periodic, 
were  called  corporations  or  guilds,  and  were  under  the  direction 
of  a  master.  What  regulations  were  instituted  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  unworthy  members  into  such  corporate  bodies  ? 
s\.t  first  none  were  admissible  who  had  not  served  an  appren 
ticeship  of  years  to  some  particular  trade,  and  afterwards  ad- 
vanced through  prescribed  degrees :  at  a  later  period  admission 
was  purchased  by  individuals  who  did  not  follow  the  business 
of  the  members,  but  wished  to  share  in  the  advantages  of  the 
association ;  and  this  was  frequently  the  case  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  the  corporations  became  so  powerful  as  to  be 
able  to  obtain  almost  exclusive  possession  of  the  government  of 
the  cities,  which,  until  this  period,  the  nobihty  had  mostly  re- 
tained in  their  own  hands :  the  corporations  now  taught  them 


CHIVALRY  391 

that,  as  they  contributed  nothing  to  the  prosperity  of  the  place 
by  their  industry,  it  did  not  become  them  to  govern  it.  How 
did  this  separation  influence  the  conduct  and  habits  of  the  no- 
bles? As  long  as  they  continued  in  the  cities,  after  this 
removal  from  power,  they  preserved  themselves  in  close  con- 
nection, and  those  who  resided  in  the  country  formed  confed- 
eracies against  the  power  of  the  cities :  associations,  which  to 
the  best  men  appeared  the  only  means  of  security  against  the 
disorders  of  the  time,  became  so  universal,  that  almost  every- 
where persons  of  the  same  trade  or  profession  were  closely 
united,  and  had  certain  laws  and  regulations  amongst  them- 
selves :  even  knowledge  itself,  in  the  universities  that  were 
established,  was  obliged  to  do  homage  to  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
and  the  liberal  arts  themselves,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  middle 
ages,  were  fettered  by  the  restraints  of  corporate  rules. 

Name  the  most  remarkable  and  characteristic  institution  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  show  how  it  is  connected  with  the  prece- 
ding system.  Chivalry,  which  exhibits  all  the  peculiarities  of 
the  corporate  system ;  the  profession  of  the  nobles  was  war ; 
no  one  of  their  order,  who  had  not  served  as  a  knight,  could 
bear  a  lance  or  command  a  troop  of  cavalry ;  and  the  service 
of  years,  as  an  attendant  or  squire,  was  necessary  to  entitle 
even  one  of  the  highest  order  to  be  dubbed  a  knight ;  but 
squire,  knight,  and  baron,  were  all  inspired  with  the  same  high 
romantic  spirit  of  honor,  pride,  gallantry,  and  devotion.  What 
actions,  almost  inconceivable  to  the  cooler  spirit  of  oui*  time, 
were  produced  by  the  religious  zeal  of  the  middle  ages  ?  Hun- 
dreds of  youths,  of  both  sexes,  were  seen  in  the  bloom  of  their 
age  shutting  themselves  up  within  the  gloomy  walls  of  a  clois- 
ter, or  retiring  to  wild  deserts,  and  there  passing  their  hves  in 
penitence  and  prayer ;  thousands  of  barefooted  pilgrims  were 
annually  seen  passing  over  sea  and  land,  for  hundreds  of  leagues, 
to  pray  and  do  penance  at  the  tomb  of  the  Saviour ;  hundreds 
of  thousands  flocked  thither  also,  with  the  cross  in  one  hand 
and  the  sword  in  the  other,  to  free  the  Holy  Land  from  the 
pollution  of  infidels.  What  advantage  was  taken,  by  the  artful 
and  ambitious,  of  this  enthusiastic  spirit,  which  would  appear 
peculiarly  suitable  to  soften  the  ferocity  of  the  age  ?  They 
established  by  its  means  intolerance,  the  destruction  of  the  Jews 
and  heretics,  the  luxurious  splendor  of  the  papal  court,  and  the 
all-embracing  system  of  the  hierarchy.  In  opposition  to  the 
secular,  which  rested  on  the  feudal  system,  and  sustained  only 
by  armies  of  vassal&,  the  pope  formed  from  archbishops,  bish- 
ops, priests,  still  more  from  the  generals  of  religious  oiilers, 


392  POPERY. 

provincials,  abbots,  and  monks,  an  immense  army,  in^dncibl€ 
through  its  power  over  the  conscience,  and  through  the  spuit- 
ual  weapons  which  belonged  to  it  and  to  its  head. 

What  was  the  extent  of  the  pope's  authority  over  the 
crowned  heads  of  Europe  ?  All  the  kings  of  the  West  acknow- 
ledged him  as  the  living  vicegerent  of  Christ :  many  were  his 
vassals,  many  tributary;  almost  all  obedient  and  subject  to 
him,  and  in  a  short  time  victims  of  a  vain  resistance.  Why 
would  such  an  influence  as  the  pope  then  possessed  have  been 
beneficial,  if  properly  exercised  at  that  period  ?  Because,  as 
princes  then  were  httle  restrained  by  constitutional  laws,  and 
the  spirit  of  the  times  allowed  them  to  dare  whatever  they  had 
the  strength  to  accomplish,  it  would  have  been  an  inestimable 
advantage  if  the  pope  had  aided  the  people,  for  centuries,  in 
opposition  to  their  monarchs'  usurpations. 

Name  some  of  the  eminent  and  honest  persons  who  de- 
claimed against  the  luxury  and  ambition  of  the  clergy,  and  their 
hostihty  to  the  diflfusion  of  knowledge?  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
the  Waldenses,  Wickhfie,  and  Huss,  and  their  followers :  they 
endeavored  to  overthrow  the  corrupt  hierarchy  by  reminding 
the  people  of  the  simplicity  and  poverty  of  the  primitive 
church ;  they  found,  unhappily,  that  their  contemporaries,  long 
accustomed  to  the  supremacy  of  the  church,  were  not  yet  ripe 
for  freedom  of  mind,  and  their  noble  efforts,  consequently,  in  a 
great  measure  failed.  What  new  bulwarks  did  the  hierarchy 
raise  iip  against  their  enemies?  Mendicant  orders  of  friars, 
and  the  institution  of  the  inquisition,  prevented  the  davrning 
light  of  the  thirteenth  century  from  penetrating  the  regions  of 
darkness :  excommunications  and  interdicts  held  all  Christen- 
dom in  terror ;  till  at  length,  with  the  diffusion  of  a  free  spirit 
of  investigation,  the  estabhshment  of  more  rational  order 
amongst  monarchies,  and  the  cooling  of  religious  enthusiasm, 
the  veil  of  darkness  was  drawn  aside,  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages  approached,  and  Luther,  the  author  of  the  reformation, 
arose,  to  free  the  mind  from  bondage. 

Why  should  poetry  be  naturally  revived,  and  much  culti- 
vated, in  the  ages  just  mentioned?  Because  the  cliivalrous 
knights  of  those  times  were  particularly  disposed  to  poetic 
views,  by  passing  their  lives  in  battle,  in  gallant  deeds,  in  festive 
pomps,  and  religious  exercises.  Where  did  poetry  first  appear 
amongst  the  knights  during  the  twelfth  century?  In  the 
southern  provinces  of  France ;  there  chivalry  first  sprang  up, 
and  with  it  shot  forth  the  first  sparks  of  modem  poesy.  Who 
lire  considered  to  be  the  founders  of  modern  poetiy?     The 


DECAY  OF  POETRY.  393 

Provencal  troubadours,  who  principally  sung  at  tlie  court  of 
Berengarius  of  Toulouse :  soon  after  these  the  French  trouveres, 
and  the  German  minnesingers,  poured  out  their  lays  in  their 
mother  tongue  :  the  Italians,  mistrusting  their  own,  sang  in  the 
Provencal ;  and  the  English,  from  a  similar  apprehension,  in 
the  French  tongue.  To  whom  are  the  Italians  indebted  for 
their  high  poetic  fame  ?  To  Dante,  who  brought  the  Tuscan 
dialect  into  honor,  and  enabled  the  minstrels  to  establish  a 
national  poetry.  What  was  the  character  of  Spanish  poetry 
during  the  same  period  ?  In  Spain  the  Catalonian  poetry  was 
the  same  as  the  Provencal,  but  the  Castilian  and  Portuguese 
partook  more  of  the  Arabians'.  Describe  the  difference  be- 
tween ancient  and  modern  epic,  as  revived  by  the  poets  of  the 
middle  ages.  The  modern  epic  is  distinguished  from  the  poetic 
narration  of  the  ancients  by  its  majestic  tone,  its  indefinite 
longing  for  something  more  elevated  than  the  realities  of  earth, 
which  have  conferred  upon  it  the  title  of  romantic. 

How  are  the  subjects  of  the  romantic  epics  limited  ?  They 
are  confined  to  three  cycles  or  collections  of  stories :  the  first 
of  these  is  the  truly  German  nibelungen,  the  stories  of  Attila, 
and  the  heroes  of  the  time  of  the  general  migration  of  nations ; 
next  to  these  rank  the  equally  old  tales  of  the  British  king 
Arthur,  his  round  table,  and  the  Sangraal,  which,  according  to 
the  old  Welsh  fables,  was  sung  in  France,  and  afterwards  in 
Germany,  and  to  which  Tristan,  the  enchanter  Merlyn,  and 
others  belong :  to  these  a  third  collection  is  to  be  added, 
originally  French,  of  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  of  Roland,  the 
enchanter  Malegys,  and  the  four  sons  of  Harymon :  as  to  the 
famous  romance  of  Amadis  de  Gaul,  this  belongs  peculiarly  to 
the  Spanish,  and  not  to  one  of  the  three  collections  here  men- 
tioned. 

What  other  and  different  class  of  relations  were  adopted  as 
subjects  of  epic  song  towards  the  decline  of  the  middle  ages  ? 
Historic  events  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  particularly  the 
exploits  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Crusades,  scripture  history, 
and  the  incidents  of  the  ancient  epics  of  Homer  and  Virgil, 
furnished  subjects  for  their  poetical  works.  To  Avhat  causes  is 
the  decay  of  poetry  at  the  close  of  this  historic  epoch  attrib- 
atable  ?  To  political  opposition ;  to  the  downfall  of  chivalry ; 
dud  to  the  increasing  spirit  of  reflection  that  just  then  sprang 
up  in  Europe.  Mark  the  gradual  decline  of  poetry  in  the  two 
last  centuries  of  these  ages.  In  the  thirteenth  century  there 
was  not  a  story  in  the  three  cycles,  before  mentioned,  that  was 
not  eagerly  sung  by  many  poets,  and  upwards  of  1400  songs. 


3*J4  POETRY  AND  THE  ARTS 

written  by  136  poets  of  this  century,  are  contained  in  thf 
Manesse  collection  alone :  the  voice  of  the  minstrel  was  almost 
wholly  silent  in  Germany,  France,  and  Spain,  in  the  fourteenth 
century :  but  Italy  boasted  of  her  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  and 
England  of  her  Chaucer:  but  after  the  fourteenth  century, 
hardly  a  single  poet  appeared  amongst  the  knights.  By  what 
species  of  literature  were  the  epic  poems  of  former  times  suc- 
ceeded, and  how  was  the  lyric  poetry  preserved  ?  The  epic 
poetry  was  replaced  by  romances  in  prose,  in  which  their 
stories  were  diluted ;  and  the  lyric  poetry  of  France  and  Ger- 
many fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Master-singers,  who,  by  a 
studied  observance  of  rules,  preserved  its  formal  existence :  so 
did  it  continue  until  the  fifteenth  century,  when  all  were  atten- 
tive only  to  the  great  events  that  were  in  preparation,  and 
the  struggles  that  preceded  them ;  and,  actuated  by  a  spirit  of 
thinking  from  which  they  proceeded,  were  far  removed  from 
that  free  flow  of  feeling  which  had  given  birth  to  the  poetry  of 
the  past  time.  Who  was  Ariosto  ?  The  Italian  Homer :  he 
flourished  at  the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  when  the  early  spirit 
of  poetry  hved  only  in  remembrance,  and  took  the  stories  of 
Charlemagne's  Peers  from  the  nursery,  and  gave  them  new 
dignity  and  grandeur. 

In  what  countries  particularly,  and  by  what  eminent  men, 
was  a  new  national  poetry  introduced  ?  In  England  by  Shaks- 
peare,  and  in  Spain  by  Cervantes.  Point  out  the  distinction 
between  the  two  ages  or  schools  of  poetry.  The  moderns  were 
creative  geniuses,  complete  masters  of  their  subjects,  who 
poured  forth  their  whole  souls  in  poetic  effusions,  so  that  we 
know  not  which  most  to  admire,  the  feehng  which  inspires,  the 
fancy  that  adorns,  or  the  understanding  that  regulates  them ; 
and  whose  tone  of  humorous  irony  proclaims  them  the  offspring 
of  modern  times  :  the  simple  poets  of  the  middle  ages  took  the 
world  as  it  was,  and  were  rather  the  organs  of  the  spirit  of  po- 
etry in  the  people,  than  independent  poets. 

Which  of  the  arts  attained  the  highest  degree  of  excellence 
in  the  middle  ages  ?  Architecture  and  Painting  :  in  the  no- 
blest buildings  of  the  ages  that  had  long  preceded,  the  form  of 
the  first  rude  dwelling-houses  is  not  to  be  mistaken  ;  they  ap- 
pear only  as  the  ornamented  forms  of  habitations  which  neces- 
sity had  created,  and  can  at  most  be  called  fine  buildings  :  but 
the  Gothic  or  pointed  architecture  of  the  middle  ages  was 
founded  on  a  deep  and  great  conception  ;  this  conception,  which 
appears  in  the  union  of  the  grandeur  of  great  masses  with  the 
finished  dehcacy  of  parts,  was  derived  ^»om  the  sylvan  tempiC 


ARTS    AND    SCIENCES.  395 

of  the  first  inhabitants,  which  was  the  representation  of  the  natuial 
world. 

Where  did  the  knowledge  of  painting  flow  from  in  these  ages,  and 
when  did  the  art  take  root  and  flourish  ?  Painting  and  other  arts  came 
from  Greece,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  into  the  Western 
kingdoms,  and  attained  their  greatest  splendor  in  the  middle  ages,  upon 
the  Lower  Rhine  and  in  Italy. 

What  was  the  state  of  scientific  learning  at  the  period  here  spoken 
of  ?  Almost  wholly  neglected  ;  the  chivalric  spirit  of  the  time,  bent 
upon  action,  could  not  devote  itself  to  a  sedentary  life  and  continued 
study.  Did  not  Charlemagne  encourage  the  growth  of  science,  and 
endeavor  to  instruct  the  people  ?  Yes :  but  his  exertions  hardly  pro- 
duced any  effect  beyond  his  life,  for  they  were  not  in  accordance  with 
the  spirit  of  the  times ;  and  even  some  centuries  after  his  reign,  the 
German  tribes  considered  no  knowledge  of  advantage,  but  that  of 
managing  the  lance  and  steed.  How  far  were  the  laity  educated  in 
those  days  ?  The  most  distinguished  could  scarcely  read  or  write,  and 
whoever  obtained  further  learning,  particularly  in  mathematics  or 
natural  science,  exposed  himself  to  the  hazard  of  being  burned  as  a 
sorcerer.  How  then  was  the  learning  of  the  ancients  preserved 
through  those  ages,  and  handed  down  to  us  in  the  perfection  in  which 
we  witness  it  ?  By  the  monks :  this  class  of  persons  were  enabled  to 
do  so  by  their  retired  situations,  and  the  leisure  they  enjoyed,  as  well 
as  by  the  necessity  of  some  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  which 
the  Roman  Catholic  ritual  enjoined :  they  were  educated  in  the  cathe- 
dral and  monastic  schools,  and  hterature  was  their  natural  occupation. 
What  was  the  extent  of  their  literary  labors  ?  The  copying  of  the  old 
writers,  particularly  the  fathers  of  the  church,  and  registering  passing 
events  of  the  times  in  meager  chronicles.  For  what  then  are  suc- 
ceeding ages  indebted  to  these  recluses  ?  For  the  preservation  of  the 
valuable  remains  of  antiquity,  for  the  materials  and  stimulants  to  new 
improvements :  our  knowledge  of  the  incidents  and  manners  of  the 
times  is  acquired  from  them  :  their  adherence  to  Latin  literature  was 
particularly  considerate,  as  that  language  was  common  to  all  the  people 
of  the  West,  not  only  in  the  affairs  of  the  church,  but  in  science  and 
public  transactions,  and  by  producing  an  agreement  in  their  general 
character,  contributed  to  promote  intercourse  and  improvement. 

What  period  in  the  history  of  the  Eastern  empire  is  analogous  to  the 
middle  ages  of  the  West,  in  marking  epochs  of  their  history  ?  The 
introduction  of  Mohammedanism  and  the  Arabic  literature.  Did  solid 
learning  find  no  patrons,  or  were  its  votaries  worthy  of  none,  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  centuries  here  mentioned  ?  In  the  eleventh  century 
a  partial  taste  for  literature  was  given  by  the  monks,  and  afterwards  by 
the  arts  and  industry  that  prevailed  in  the  cities :  learning  was  encour- 
aged by  Henry  11.  of  England,  by  the  Hohenstaufen,  St.  Louis,  the 
Alphonsos,  and  other  intellectual  princes ;  and  from  these  times,  the 
age  of  Lanfranc,  Abelard,  and  John  of  Sahsbury,  the  middle  ages  pro- 
duced distinguished  men,  whom  the  coldness  of  their  contemporaries, 
in  the  cause  of  science,  only  urged  to  a  more  ardent  pursuit  of  it. 

What  species  of  scientific  learning  was  most  cultivated  by  those 


396  SCHOLASTIC    THEOLOGY. 

philosophers,  and  to  ".vhat  important  results  did  its  practice  lead! 
Dialectics,  from  whence  the  church  dogmatics  were  formed ;  the 
foundation  of  philosophy,  a  disputatious  spirit,  awoke,  that  was  not 
afterwards  calmed  until  the  theses  of  Luther  in  Wirtemburg  contribu- 
ted in  a  great  measure  to  bring  about  the  great  Reformation,  and  thereby 
shed  a  new  light  upon  science.  Was  the  Reformation  the  sole  cause 
and  origin  of  high  intellectual  exertion  and  freedom  of  thought  ?  No. 
not  the  only  cause  :  but  it  materially  assisted  the  striving  after  freedom 
of  conscience,  which  originated  some  centuries  before,  with  the  flight 
of  the  Greek  scholars  from  Constantinople,  and  both  were  aided  in 
their  operation  by  the  invention  of  printing,  which  had  been  encouraged 
by  the  princes  of  Italy,  and  had  shone  forth  in  Germany,  in  the  brother- 
hood of  Deventer,  in  Wessel,  Erasmus,  Celtes,  Reuchlin,  and  others ; 
with  the  appearance  of  these  men,  with  the  rise  of  the  sun  of  the  new 
day,  the  romantic  twilight  of  the  middle  ages  faded. 

Name  the  principal  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
general  irruption  of  the  barbarians,  which  was  succeeded  by  the  forma- 
tion of  separate  German  states ;  and  this  was  followed  by  the  universal 
empire  of  Charlemagne  :  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  Christendom  under  a 
spiritual  head,  and  under  the  temporal  protection  of  the  newly-revived 
Roman  empire,  arose  from  this.  The  fall  of  the  (5arlovingians  was 
succeeded  by  new  modifications  of  the  European  states,  and  by  devas- 
tations of  the  barbarians  in  various  parts ;  of  the  Saracens  in  the  south, 
of  the  Normans  in  the  north  and  west,  of  the  Hungarians  in  the  east ; 
all  of  whom,  however,  became  subsequently  subject  to  the  German 
empire :  the  spirit  of  chivalry  next  arose,  sprung  from  the  Normans, 
who  colonized  parts  of  France,  Italy,  Sicily,  and  England :  discord 
and  contention  arose  between  the  great  secular  and  spiritual  powers, 
which  convulsed  all  Christendom,  and  which  frustrated  the  crusades,  a 
warfare  wherein  knighthood  was  ennobled.  Name  the  principal  epochs 
from  the  crusades  to  the  Reformation.  The  origin  of  cities  and  of  the 
third  estate  ;  commerce  with  the  East,  by  means  of  Italy  and  the  Hanse 
towns ;  corruption  of  the  clergy,  and  institution  of  mendicant  orders 
and  the  inquisition ;  the  establishment  of  universities,  and  the  pope 
humbled  to  the  power  of  France ;  councils  at  Constance  and  Basle ; 
subjection  of  the  Greek  empire,  and  formidable  position  of  the  Turkish 
power  to  the  West  of  Europe ;  flight  of  the  scholars  from  Constanti- 
nople, and  consequent  difiusion  of  learning ;  invention  of  the  art  ol 
printing,  disco  7ery  of  the  New  World,  and  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the 
East  Indies ;  the  Reformation. 


THZ  END. 


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Works  on  Chemistry. 


Class-book  of  Chemistry. 

BY  E.  L.  YOUMANS. 

12mo.    340  pages.   Price  75  cents. 

Every  page  of  this  book  bears  evidence  of  the  author's  superior 
ability  of  perfectly  conforming  his  style  to  the  capacity  of  youth. 
This  is  a  merit  rarely  possessed  by  the  authors  of  scientific  school- 
books,  and  will  be  appreciated  by  every  discriminating  teacher. 
While  Chemistry  is  almost  universally  regarded  by  students  as  a 
dry  and  repulsive  study  (owing  to  the  rigid  and  technical  manner 
in  which  it  is  presented),  Mr.  Youmans'  work  will  be  found  pre- 
eminent in  clearness  and  simplicity  of  diction,  by  which  the  subject 
is  made  at  once  interesting  and  attractive.  It  is  especially  commended 
by  the  eminently  practical  manner  in  which  each  subject  is  presented'. 
Its  illustrations  are  drawn  largely  from  the  phenomena  of  daily 
experience,  and  the  interest  of  the  pupil  is  speedily  awakened  by 
the  consideration  that  Chemistry  is  not  a  matter  bebnging  exclu- 
sively to  physicians  and  professors. 

From  Peof.  Wm.  H.  Bigelow. 
The  eminently  practical  character  of  the  Class-book,  treating  0/  the  familiar  ap- 
plications of  the  science,  is,  in  my  opinion,  its  chief  excellence,  and  gives  it  a  valuo 
far  superior  to  any  other  work  now  before  the  public. 

From  David  Stme,  A.  M.,  formerly  Principal  of  the  Math.  Dept.  and  Lecturer  in 
Hat.  Philosophy,  Chemistry,  and  Physiology,  in  Columbia  College. 

Mk.  Youmans:  Dear  Sir,— I  have  carefully  examined  your  Class-Book  on  Chem- 
istry, and,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  better  adapted  for  use  in  schools  and  academies  than 
any  other  work  on  the  subject  that  has  fallen  under  my  observation. 

1  hope  that  the  success  of  your  Class-Book  will  be  proportionate  to  its  merits, 
and  that  your  efforts  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  of  Chemistry  will  be  duly  appreciated 
by  the  friends  of  education. 

From  Peof.  J.  Mulligan,  Principal  of  Young  Ladies''  Scliool,  New  York, 
We  have  a  large  number  of  school-books  for  the  purpose  of  giving  elementary 
instruction  in  Chemistry — possessing  various  kinds  and  various  degrees  of  merit ; 
but  of  all  which  I  have  examined,  I  should  prefer  the  Class-Book  of  Chemistry,  as  the 
most  perspicuous  in  style  and  method,  and  as  containing  tho  happiest  selection  of 
what  is  most  interesting,  and  most  practically  valuable  in  the  vast  field  of  chemical 
Bcieuce. 

From,  the  N.  Y.  Commercial  Advertiser. 
Either  for  schools  or  for  general  reading,  we  know  of  no  elementary  work  on 
Chemistry  which  in  every  respect  pleases  us  so  much  as  this. 

From  the  Scientific  American. 

Such  a  book,  in  the  present  state  of  chemical  science,  was  demanded;  but  to  pre- 
sent the  subject  in  such  a  clear,  comprehensive  manner,  in  a  work  of  the  size  befoi'o 
us,  is  more  than  we  expected. 

The  author  has  happily  succeeded  in  clothing  his  ideas  in  plain  language— true 
eloquence— so  as  to  render  the  subject  both  interesting  and  easily  comprehended. 
The  number  of  men  who  can  write  on  science  and  writ*^  clearly,  is  small ;  but  our 
author  is  among  that  number.  *     - 


Familiar  Science. 


The  Hand-Book  of  Household  Science. 

A  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF 

Heat,  Light,  Am,  Aliment,  and  Cleansing,  in  their  Scientific  Pkinciples 
AND  Domestic  Applications. 

BY     EDWARD     L.      YOU  MANS. 

12mo.  Illustrated.  470  pages.  Price  $125. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  to  meet  a  long-acknowledged  want 
in  our  schools.  There  is  a  strong  and  growing  demand  for  that 
kind  of  knowledge  which  can  be  made  available  in  the  daily  opera- 
tions of  familiar  life.  Various  books  have  been  prepared  which 
cross  the  field  of  domestic  science  at  different  points,  but  this  is  the 
first  work  that  traverses  and  occupies  the  whole  ground.  Hardly 
a  page  can  be  opened  to  that  does  does  not  convey  information  in- 
teresting and  valuable  to  every  person  who  dwells  in  a  house.  The 
work  will  be  found  not  only  of  high  practical  utility,  but  captivat- 
ing to  the  student,  and  unequalled  in  the  interest  of  its  recitations. 

Extract  from  the  Preface. 

"The  purpose  has  been  to  condense  within  the  limits  of  a  convenient 
manual  the  largest  possible  amount  of  interesting  and  valuable  scientific 
information  of  those  agents,  materials,  and  operations  in  which  we  have  a 
concern  chiefly  as  dwellers  in  houses. 

"  The  subjects  are  treated  somewhat  in  an  elementary  way,  but  with 
constant  reference  to  their  domestic  and  practical  relations.  Principles  are 
universal ;  their  applications  are  special  and  peculiar.  There  are  general 
laws  of  light,  heat,  and  air,  but  they  may  be  studied  in  various  connections. 
There  are  many  things  about  them  which  a  person,  as  a  resident  of  a  house, 
cares  little  to  know,  while  there  are  others  in  which  he  has  a  profound  in- 
terest. To  consider  these,  we  assume  to  be  the  province  of  household  sci- 
ence. The  question  of  moisture  in  the  air,  for  example,  is  one  of  universal 
scientific  interest  to  meteorologists  ;  but  it  has  also  a  special  and  vital  im- 
port for  the  occupants  of  stove  and  furnace-heated  rooms.  Different  colors, 
when  brought  together,  alter  and  modify  each  other  according  to  a  simple 
and  beautifid  law;  and  the  painter,  the  decorator,  and  the  dyer,  have  each 
a  technical  interest  in  the  principle,  but  hardly  more  than  the  lady  at  her 
toilet,  or  engaged  in  furnishing  her  house.  The  agriculturist  is  interested 
in  the  composition  of  food  as  a  producer;  the  householder  ecjuallyas  a  con- 
sumer. The  doctor  must  know  the  constituents  of  air  and  its  action  upon 
the  living  system  for  professional  purposes,  and  he  studies  these  matters  as 
parts  of  his  medical  education;  but  for  the  same  reasons  of  life  and  death, 
the  inhabitants  of  houses  are  concerned  to  understand  the  same  things. 

"  These  examples  illustrate  the  leadinjf  conception  of  the  present  work." 


Natural  Science. 


Class-Book  of  Physiology. 

BY  B.  N.  COMINGS,  M.  D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSIOLOGY,  CIIEMISTUY,  AND  NATURAL  HISTORY,  IN  CONNECTICUT 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

12mo.    334  pages.    Price  $1. 
REVISED    EDITION,  WITPI    AN    APPENDIX.      " 

Professor  Comings'  thorough  acquaintance  with  every^  depart- 
ment of  Phj'siology,  and  his  long  experience  as  a  teacher  of  that 
science,  qualify  him  in  an  eminent  degree  for  preparing  an  accurate 
and  useful  text-book  on  the  subject.  He  has  lost  no  opportunity 
of  introducing  practical  instructions  in  the  principles  of  hygiene, 
thus  not  only  making  the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  wondrous 
workmanship  of  his  own  frame,  but  showing  him  how  to  preserve 
it  in  a  sound  and  health}'-  state.  Avoiding  technical  terms,  as  far 
as  possible,  he  has  brought  the  subject  fully  within  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  young,  and  has  clothed  it  with  unusual  interest,  by  ju- 
dicious references  to  the  comparative  physiology  of  the  inferior  ani- 
mals. Pictorial  illustrations  have  been  freely  introduced,  wherever 
it  was  thought  they  could  aid  or  interest  the  student. 

Physiology  cannot  but  be  considered,  by  every  intelligent  and 
reflecting  mind,  an  exceedingly  interesting  and  necessary  study.  It 
makes  us  acquainted  with  the  structure  and  uses  of  the  organs  of 
life,  and  the  laws  by  which  we  may  keep  them  active  and  vigorous 
for  the  longest  period.  The  publishers  would  respectfully  urge  its 
importance  on  such  teachers  as  have  not  heretofore  made  it  a  regu- 
lar branch  in  their  institutions  ;  and  would  solicit,  at  the  hands  of 
all,  an  impartial  examination  of  what  is  pronounced  by  good  judges, 
"  the  best  elementary  text-book"  on  the  science. 

From  M.  Y.  Brown,  Principal  of  Webster  School,  Neiv  Hamn, 
"I  have  used  Cornings'  Class-Book  of  Physiology  for  nearly  two  school 
terms  in  the  First  Department  of  my  school.  I  am  happy  to  say  that 
I  regard  it  the  hest  text-hooh  on  this  important  branch  with  which  I  have  any 
acquaintance.  The  subjects  are  systematically  arranged ;  the  ]:)rinciple9, 
facts,  and  illustrations  are  clearly  and  fully  represented  to  the  pupil.  I  find 
that  his  introduction  of  CompWtive  Anatomy  and  Physics,  tends  greatly 
to  increase  the  interest  of  the  pupil  in  this  7nost  important  and  necessary 
study.  I  therefore  can  clieerfully  recommend  this  admirable  work  to  my 
fellow-teachers  as  one  of  rare  excellence,  and  hope  it  may  take  the  rank  it 
deserves  as  a  text- book  upon  this  subject." 

From  Abraham  Powelson,  Jr.,  Teacher,  BrooTdyn,  Netv  Torh. 
"  After  a  very  careful  examination  of  the  Class-Book  of  Physiology,  by 
Comings,  I  can  freely  say  that  I  consider  it  a  performance  of  superior  excel- 
lence.    It  embodies  a  fund  of  information  surpassing  in  importance  and  va- 
riety that  of  any  other  work  of  the  kind  which  has  come  under  my  notice." 


Natural  Science. 


Analytical  Class-Book  of  Botany. 

BY  FRANCES  H.  GREEN. 

PAST  I.- ELEMENTS  OP  VEGETABLE  6TEUCTUKE  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  PART  II.— SYSTEM- 
ATIC BOTANY.  TO  -WHICH  IS  ADDED  A  COMPENDIOUS  FLORA  OP  THE  NORTHERN 
AND  MIDDLE  STATES  ;  WITH  DESCRIPTIONS  OP  MORE  THAN  ONE  THOUSAND  DIFrES- 
ENT  6PECIE8 :   BY  JoS.  W.  CONGDON. 

niustrated  Quarto.   228  Pages.   Price  $1  50. 


Primary  Class-Book  of  Botany. 

Composed  from  the  first  part  of  the  analytical  class-book, 
and  designed  for  the  use  of  common  schools  and  families. 

Illustrated  Quarto.    102  Pages.   Price  75  Cents. 

The  style  is  simple,  concise,  and  intelligible  ;  and  what  has  for- 
merly been  considered  dark  and  forbidding,  is  here  rendered  both 
clear  and  interesting.  The  whole  life  of  the  plant,  beginning  with 
the  formation  of  the  first  cell,  is  portrayed  with  that  vivid  and 
quickening  power  which  invests  it  with  the  interest  of  a  real  biog- 
raphy. Here  we  find  not  merely  a  dry  assemblage  of  dry  facts, 
but  the  plant  seems  to  unfold  itself,  part  by  part,  with  a  kind  of 
individual  life  and  character. 

The  work  is  illustrated  with  400  well-executed  wood-cuts.  Most 
of  these  are  arranged  in  29  plate-pages,  which  are  designed  to  be 
used  for  regular  exercises  and  recitations,  the  same  as  maps  in  geog- 
raphy. They  furnish  a  recapitulation  of  the  Lessons  of  the  Text  in 
a  new  form,  and  addressed  to  another  sense,  thus  awakening  the 
most  lively  and  permanent  impressions. 

Part  II.  is  distinguished  by  the  simplicity  and  directness  of  tho 
whole  structure,  the  clearness  of  the  synopsis,  the  comprehensive- 
ness and  popular  character  of  the  descriptions,  the  nice  distinctions 
observed  between  nearly  allied  species,  and  the  high  degree  of  cer- 
tainty and  perfection  in  the  peculiar  form  of  analysis.  The  descrip- 
tions of  the  Natural  Orders  are  illustrated  by  fifty  elegant  wood- 
cuts, drawn  from  nature. 


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Among  the  peculiar  merits  of  this  work,  besides  its  simplicity,  are 
the  conciseness  of  its  ruVes  and  definitions ;  its  close  and  logical 
reasoning,  which  calls  th(  powers  of  the  learner  into  active  exer- 
cise ;  and  the  great  nun  ber  and  variety  of  its  examples,  which 
afford  every  opportunity  i  r  extended  practice. 


m.entary  principles,  all  thehigher  parts  usually  taught  in  Colleges  ; 
containing,  moreover,  the  jew  method  of  Cubic  and  Higher  Equa- 
tions, as  well  as  the  devel  pment  and  application  of  the  more  re- 
cently discovered  Theoren  of  Sturm.  8vo.  Sheep.  420  pages. 
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will  be  seen,  from  the  tit!  given  above,  that  it  is  comprehensive 
and  complete.  The  prin<  )les  of  the  science  are  combined  and 
arranged  on  a  new  plan,  ■  rich  renders  the  increase  in  difficulty 


exceedingly  gradual. 


Perkins'   G 


ometrical   Series. 


I.  ELEMENTS  OF  GE<  DSTRT,  with  Practical  Applications. 
12mo.  320  pages.  Price  1  00. — In  these  Elements  it  is  aimed 
to  strip  Geometry  of  its  dlculties,  and  render  it  an  attractive 
study.  This  is  effected  b*iving  a  practical  bearing  to  every 
tiring  that  is  taught.  This  Iginal  feature  invests  Geometry  with 
an  interest  of  which  its  appkntly  abstract  character  has  hereto- 
fore deprived  it. 

II.  PLANE  AND  SOLID  loMETRY :  to  which  are  added, 
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follow  the  Elements,  and  gives  an  extended  course  in  the  higher 
as  well  as  the  more  rudimental  departments  of  the  science,  adapted 
for  advanced  schools  and  colleges.  It  is  hased  on  the  admirable 
work  of  Vincent,  revised  by  Bourdon,  which  has  long  been  the 
geometrical  standard  in  the  French  schools. 

PERKINS'  PLANE  TRIGONOMETRY,  and  its  appHcation  to 
Mensuration  and  Land  Surveying,  accompanied  with  all  the  ne- 
0;  "+iiT.-ii^  arti\  Tricronometric  Tables.    8vo.    "'" " 


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